world religion

1. Give a detailed account of the supreme goals of life (Purusarthas) according to Hinduism.

Introduction

            “Purusha” means human being and “artha” means object or objective. Therefore Purusharthas means objectives of man or ‘what is sought by human beings.’ Purusha does not mean male in physical sence, but any soul in its differentiated aspect. So the Purusharthas are applicable to both men and women equally.  According to Hindu way of life, a man should strive to achieve four chief objectives (Purusharthas) in his life. They are dharma (righteousness/ religious, moral merit), artha (pursuit of wealth), kama (pursuit of pleasure), and moksa (liberation). Of these four dharma and moksa are the one that man ought to seek; while artha and kama are the one that man is naturally inclined to seek.

Dharma (justice, righteousness)

             For dharma, the dictionary suggests terms like virtue, righteousness, duty, right, morality, justice, the good, the characteristics, tradition, ordinance, law, etc. But dharma is essentially a human value, operating in the universe of human ideals. According to Sankara, dharma is the way of life embodying the truth perceived. This is the supreme end in this world.  It brings material property (artha) and fulfillment of desires (kama), and liberation (moksa). The essence of dharma is that one should do to others what one would like others to do to oneself. Dharma is usually distinguished into sadharana dharma and varnashrama dharma. Sadharana dharma refers to the duties of universal scope and validity. The varnasrama dharma refers to the duties of persons according to the castes and the stages of life. Thus ‘dharma’ is considered to be a means for attaining personality integration in the spiritual level or liberation.

Artha (Wealth)

            The term ‘artha’ generally indicates the attainment of riches and worldly prosperity, advantage, profit, and wealth. It means the whole range of tangible objects that can be possessed, enjoyed, or lost and which we require in our daily life for the upkeep of a household, raising of a family, and discharge of religious duties. It helps in the satisfaction of material, biological, and economic desires, for according to the sages, lack of wealth weakens the person and leads him to adopting illegal and immoral ways to obtain satisfaction. By the term ‘artha’, Kautilya in his book Artha Sastra IV 9 means both the economic and political aspects of man’s life in the society. The Mahabharata stresses the great importance of wealth, saying that poverty is a state of sinfulness. Thus, one has to acquire enough wealth to succeed in life.

Kama (Satisfaction of desires)

            Kama includes all desires: desires ranging from the cravings of the flesh and the yearnings of the spirit. In the process of fulfilling the desires, dharma has to be maintained and there should be proper means for the satisfaction of the desires. Vatsyayana in his book Kama Sutra, gives a great treatise on erotic enjoyment. It deals with the various aspects of sex life and the natural strivings of the human heart. However, Vatsyayana suggests that the satisfactions of sexual desires are to be followed with moderation and caution. The uniqueness of the concept of kama and enjoyment is that all of them were to be related to the spiritual goal of human existence, and so the Indian ethics insisted on a regulated enjoyment.

Moksha (Liberation)

            Moksha is the highest value of human life (parama purushartha). It is also known by other names such as mukti, apavarya, kaivalya, and nirvana. This is intimately bound with the karma samsara, the doctrine of transmigration. Almost all Indian schools of thought accepted the theory of karma and rebirth, and the ideal of moksha is conceived as liberation from the cycle of births and deaths.        

           

            As an ideal, moksha is pursued by an individual as a personal value. It is understood as jivanmukti in the Advaita Vedanta. The man who has attained liberation in this life is called jivanmukta. Different schools propose different ways to attain moksha. The Advaita Vedanta of Sankara holds that knowledge or jnana is the means of attaining moksha. The dualistic and pluralistic systems insist that the bondage of the individual can be removed by the bhakthi marga or path of devotion to God. There is another way promoted by the Gita to attain the ultimate realization in life and liberation from the cycle of births and deaths, which is known as Karma Yoga (Path of activity).

Conclusion: Dharma is always held higher than Artha and Kama. In the attainment of moksha only dharma can help, provided it has been cultivated through artha and kama. Moral decay and disintegration will follow. However with all these things also he is not seen to be happy and contended. It can definitely help us to find peace of mind which is the birth right of every human being.

2. Explain the fundamental articles of belief in Christianity.

Introduction

 Christianity today is the world’s largest religion with more than 2 billion followers (33% of the world population) and is practiced in nearly every nation on Earth. It is very difficult task to write about Christianity, since there are numerous groups of Christians all over the world. And there are many different Christian faith groups and even conflicting beliefs. As a result, one has to be selective in writing about Christianity and it may not be acceptable to all faith groups which consider themselves Christians.  However, as far as the fundamental articles of belief are concerned, they are centered on two important doctrines: a teaching about God; and about Jesus Christ. In the first place, over many centuries Christianity has professed that God is first and foremost a Creator of all there is. The following are some of the fundamental articles of belief in Christianity.

Jesus Christ God-Become-Man

 The main person in Christianity is Jesus Christ. As the Son of God, he came to earth to teach about love and fellowship. He represents the person that all Christians must strive to be. Christians believe that he is the only one that ever lived on earth that can be called perfect from all worldly sins. The important thing to understand was that Jesus was God, though born of a humble woman and virgin, named Mary. He was here on earth to teach of God’s plan for all of humanity and to save us from our transgressions. He was fully God and fully a human being.

The Doctrine of the Trinity

 According to traditional Christian theology, God is triune. That is, God is a unity of three persons: Father, Son and Holy Spirit. The Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, but there are not three Gods, only one. Thus a clear distinctiveness of Trinitarian doctrine is the notion that a man, Jesus, is included in the identity of God. Such an idea is alien to Judaism and Islam. It leads directly to the second primordial doctrine of Christian faith, which concerns the identity and significance of Jesus Christ.

The Bible as the Word of God

 The Bible, made up of the Old Testament and the New Testament, is the scripture of Christianity. The New Testament began in the early Christian Church as a series of papers and letters written by numerous people. There are twenty-seven books in the New Testament. Christians believe that the Bible is the “Word of God in the words of human beings.” Therefore, they interpret this Word of God to seek its meaning and relevance for contemporary situations.

Modern English Version of the Creed of Constantinople (381 CE)

“I believe in God, the Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth.  I believe in Jesus Christ, God's only Son, our Lord, who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died, and was buried; he descended to the dead. On the third day he rose again; he ascended into heaven, he is seated at the right hand of the Father, and he will come again to judge the living and the dead. I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy Catholic Church, the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting. AMEN.” This creed is the core statement of belief of Christians.

Resurrection of the Body

 All Christians’ faith rests on Christ's resurrection from the dead. The resurrection of Christ proved that he was God. His death and resurrection paved the path for the redemption of all of humanity that believed. In Christian beliefs, all who have died will be resurrected from their earthly bodies and become new persons in Christ. On Easter every Christian celebrates Jesus’ rising to new life, which is a symbol of his/her new life.

The Church as the Community of the Faithful

 All the Christians believe that Jesus founded the Church to carry on his vision and message by Peter and other apostles. The church is called to live out the values of love, forgiveness, equality, justice, and brotherhood, the values taught by Jesus. The Church, as a community of the faithful, supports each other and brings the community closer to God. The leaders of the Church are specially chosen by the people and by God himself.

Eucharist and other Sacraments

 Eucharist or communion is practiced to remember Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection. It is the center of all religious practices for Christians.

Eschatology as the Final Fulfillment

            Christians believe in heaven (place of eternal bliss) and hell (place of punishment). Each one will be awarded with either heaven or hell after death according to his/her deeds on this earth. Most Christians believe that death and suffering will continue to exist until Christ's return. Others believe that suffering will gradually be eliminated prior to his coming, and that the elimination of injustice is our part in preparing for that event.

Conclusion

 Thus, it is clearly seen that the articles of belief of Christianity definitely revolves around Christ who is one of the persons of the Triune God, and who became man. if Christ is excluded the whole Christian belief will collapse.

3. (B) Briefly discuss the Sikh understanding of God.

            The concept of God in Sikhism is uncompromisingly monotheistic, as symbolized by "Ik Onkar"(one God), a central tenet of Sikh philosophy. However Sikhs believe that God also prevails in everything. The fundamental belief of Sikhism is that God exists, is indescribable yet knowable and perceivable to anyone who is prepared to dedicate the time and energy to become perceptive to their persona.

           

             In the Moolmantra, Nanak describes God as “By the Grace of the Sole One, Self-existent and Immanent, the Creator Person, without Fear or Unconditioned, Without enmity or Un-contradicted, the Timeless One, Un-incarnated, Self-created and Enlightener.” (AG1). Sikh Gurus repeatedly assert the monotheistic character of God by saying, ‘God is the one, the only one, and the one without a second’. Though the understanding of God in Sikhism is strictly monotheistic, it accepts two aspects of God i.e., the nirguna and the saguana. God (Parameshur) in his nirguna aspect is beyond all attributes including sat (truth), akal (beyond time), and ajuni (not becoming).  In the saguna aspect, God is attributed qualities like Sabd (word), Nam (personality), and Guru (enlightener). God is the creator of the universe, and the origin, existence and survival of the universe depend on the all-powerful will (hukam) of God.

           

            God created the world without the support of any other factor like prakrti, and the creator and the created world are different in their nature. God is uncreated and unchanging, whereas the created world though not unreal is changing and limited. God existed even before creation in His transcendent nature, but through the act of creation he became immanent, “In the region of Truth, God creates perpetually, watches His Creation with a Benevolent eye.” (AG8).  God in His transcendent nature cannot be explained in empirical terms, because God is beyond time and space; “When here was no form in sight, how could there be good or bad actions? When God was in the Self-Absorbed state, there could be no enmity or conflict. When God was all by Himself, there could be no attachment or misunderstanding.” (AG290).  God through his word (Naam) creates the world and sustains it, “God creates the universe, takes His abode it and sustains it.” (AG788).  “Having created the world, He stands in the midst of it and is separate too.” (AG4).  “He is in the midst of all and is yet distinct.” (AG939). God in His immanent nature is comprehensible by empirical mind and incomprehensible in His transcendent nature.

            The human person, because of ignorance, considers him/herself as the lord of creation and self-reliant.  Because of these wrong identifications, humans get attached to the material world and the attachment leads to endless cycles of births and deaths.  Liberation (mukti) from the cycle of births and deaths is possible only by becoming aware of the constant presence of God within (gurmukh) and by the grace of God. Any number of rituals or pilgrimages is not capable of bringing in liberation for the seeker because God is present within each one; what is required is right conduct.  The awareness of the presence of God within a person is expressed through selfless service (sewa) and this is main characteristic of a liberated person while alive.

           

            To conclude it can be said that Sikhism follows strict monotheistic God, who is the creator and sustainer of the universe is concerned about the wellbeing of the world and of the human beings.  God is not passive abut actively present in the life and struggles of the people leading them to liberation. It is the will of God which controls and directs everything in this world. The Sikh God is a God of grace whose will and grace are active in a becoming world without any other influence. God is completely free and creative, who is equated with Naam, the Ultimate Reality.

c) Do Jews believe in life after death? Explain.

           Yes, Jews believe in a "world to come" but it is not clearly said in their scriptures. They don't believe that only Jews will be there, but that "the righteous of all nations have a place in the world to come. Essentially, they believe in heaven. They don’t believe in hell. This surprises a lot of people, but it's true. They do believe in a place called Gehinom, where virtually every soul goes FOR A BRIEF TIME in order to be purified. This purification process is not necessarily pleasant, but it certainly isn't torture or hell fire--and again, it's for a limited duration. When a soul is done with the purification process, they believe that it goes on to heaven.

           Jewish sacred texts and literature have little to say about what happens after death. But Judaism is focused more on actions than beliefs, so it is actually to be expected that its prophets and sages have not spent as much time on speculations about the world to come as elaborations on the Jewish law to be performed in this life. The Torah and Talmud alike focus on the purpose of earthly life, which is to fulfill one's duties to God and one's fellow human beings. Succeeding at this brings reward, failing at it brings punishment. There is not much talk on rewards and punishments after death.  It is interesting to note that the Hebrew word Olam Ha-Ba ("the world to come") is used for both the messianic age and the afterlife. This word is very important and something to look forward to. An oral Torah says, "This world is like a lobby before the Olam Ha-Ba. Prepare yourself in the lobby so that you may enter the banquet hall." A popular exhortation to contemporary audience is: "This world is only like a hotel. The world to come is like a home." According to the Torah, death means rejoining with the ancestors. In an imagery which refers to the finality of death, it says that “the dead are like dust returning to dust”. Another image in this connection is a shadowy place called Sheol. It is generally a place of darkness and silence. These indicate that the soul continues to exist in some way after death. Regarding the Day of Judgment, where the rewarding or punishing of the dead according to their earthly life will take place, all the dead will be divided into groups. The thoroughly righteous and just will go for everlasting life, in Gan Eden (heaven). The wicked will go Gehinnom (hell).

The Afterlife in the Torah

 For the most part, the Torah describes the afterlife in vague terms, many of which may simply be figurative ways of speaking about death as it is observed by the living. An early common theme is that death means rejoining one's ancestors. Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, and other patriarchs are "gathered to their people" after death. In contrast, the wicked are "cut off   from their people." Other concrete imageries emphasize the finality of death: the dead are like dust returning to dust or water poured out on the ground (“Jewish Beliefs on the Afterlife” 2004). Another recurring biblical image of the afterlife is as a shadowy place called Sheol, a place of darkness and silence, located in low places. Gradually, the concept of conscious life after death begins to develop in the Torah.

Resurrection of the Dead (Tehiyat Hameitim) and Judgment

 Judaism believes in resurrection of the dead.  In fact, the resurrection of the dead is one of Maimonides' Thirteen Articles of Belief, and the frequently-recited Jewish prayer contains several references to the resurrection. How this resurrection might occur has been a matter of speculation in later years. (“Jewish Beliefs on the Afterlife” 2004)

            Judaism believes in a judgement, according to one’s actions. The School of Shammai offered the following description: There will be three groups on the Day of Judgment: one of thoroughly righteous people, one of thoroughly wicked people, and one of people in between. The first group will be immediately inscribed for everlasting life; the second group will be doomed in Gehinnom [Hell].(“Jewish Beliefs on the Afterlife” 2004)

            Thus, though there is not clear description of the concept of life after death in the sacred books, Jews believe in it. Their belief in the resurrection of the dead and judgment day also speak of the concept of life after death. The core of this concept is that everyone gets his/her reward according to one’s action.

4.a) Explain the five great vows (Pancha Vrathas) of Jainism.

           There occurs the exposition of twelve vows in Jainism.   But Jaina writers are not unanimous about the necessity of all the twelve steps. Some of them select the only five, namely, the five great vows (Pancha Vrathas) as sufficient for the perfection of conduct.

i) Non-violence (Ahimsa): Among the five, ahimsa is the most important vow. Ahimsa is abstinence from all injury to life, life that exists not simply in the moving beings (trasa), but also in some non- moving ones (sthavara), such as plants and beings inhabiting the bodies of the earth. Abstinence from injury to life must be observed in thought, word, and deed –Mana, Vachana, and Kaya respectively. In the case of the householder, it is applicable with a limitation. In the case of ascetics, it is to be observed absolutely without any limitation.

ii) Truth (Satya): This vow is abstinence from falsehood. The vow of satya or truthfulness consists in speaking what is true, as well as what is pleasant and good. It is also pointed out that for the perfect maintenance of this vow, one must conquer greed, fear and anger.

iii) Non-stealing (Astheya): This vow consists in not taking what is not given. This vow also includes abstinence from evil practices. The vow of asteya or ‘non-stealing’ is based on the idea of the sanctity of property.

iv) Brahmacharaya: The vow of brahmacharaya consists in abstaining from all forms of self-indulgence. This refers to purity of personal conduct in the matter of sex. This vow when applied to the ascetic implies absolute celibacy. For the complete maintenance of this vow, one must desist from all forms of self-indulgence – external and internal, subtle and gross, mundane and extra-mundane, direct and indirect.

v) Abstinence from all attachment (Aparigraha): The vow of aparigraha consists in abstaining from all attachment to the senses – pleasant sound, touch, colour, taste, and smell. Attachment to the world’s objects means bondage to the world, and the force of this causes rebirth. Liberation is impossible without the withdrawal of attachment.

c) Differentiate between Nirguna and Saguna Brahman.

            The ultimate reality is acknowledged in the Upanisads as both immanent and transcendent in nature.  Brahman is both cosmic (saguna –‘with characteristics’) and acosmic (nirguna – ‘without characteristics). Saguna Brahman is understood to be the finest essence of all things in the world. Brahman is the substance of the universe.  This does not mean that Brahman is the material stuff of the world which can be perceived sensually. Rather it is that hidden and subtle reality which allows all things to exist in the first place.  Nirguna Brahman cannot be described through definitive or positive statements, since Brahman transcends the limitations of language. It is not subject to categorization, and therefore, can neither be perceived nor conceived. Thus, one, seeking knowledge of saguna Brahman is to comprehend the unity of all things in the world constructed on the essence of Brahman. And the one seeking for an understanding of nirguna Brahman was to ‘deconstruct’ the phenomenal world as it were, in order to comprehend the imperishable self that lies behind the world of life and death. The process of knowing this aspect of Brahman is negative theology, via negative, ‘neti-neti’ ‘not this’ ‘not this’. Brahman can be best described only as ‘this is not Brahman,’ ‘that is not Brahman.’ A positive description of Brahman would not fully comprehend the ultimate reality.

d) What is the Christian understanding of the relationship between the world and God?

Creation is a free act of God: Creation is the act of God who is One and Unique. The created world is not the absolute, nor is anything which the world contains. Only God is Absolute, and the Absolute is distinct from the world. The relation between the Absolute and the world is a relation of creation, and is expressed through the Hebrew verb “bara” (to create), a word that the Bible reserves only for God’s action. Creation is not imposed upon God, either by an external or an internal necessity. It was not for self-realization, or for self-generation, or for self-awareness that God created the world. Neither did God create the world to acquire perfection. Creation is grace; the first grace. In the words of the scholastic theologian Hugh of St Victor it is gratia creatrix (creating grace). Creation is the manifestation of God’s agape (love), and of His goodness. At the beginning there is the agape of God, His bountiful love, and creation is His free gift.

Creation is not eternal: Creation has had a beginning. The world did not exist from all eternity. God created all things in time. The Bible opens with these words: “In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth” (Genesis 1:1). Just as creation has had a unique and definitive beginning, the created world is irreversibly directed towards an end. Creation is neither eternal, nor will there be an eternal re-commencement of the cosmic cycle. Creation is not appearance or illusion. The whole world has had a beginning and will have an end, for it is not divine, and is not the same as self-existence.

Creation is “continuous creation”: Creation is not a static, ready-made world constructed by the divine Creator, but it is a dynamic, unfolding creative process. If creation is creatio ex nihilo, it is also creatio continua (continuous creation). Creatio ex nihilo conveyed the ontological dependence of creation on the sustaining will of the Creator. Creatio continua communicates that God’s action in relation to the world is not a single act in the past, but is a continuing presence here and now, a continuing creation. God is as much the Creator today as God was when the Creator spoke the world into being. The created world has no autonomous existence that would enable it to continue independently of a God. The world would cease to be without the divine sustaining will.

e) Explain the importance of the religious tax (Zakat) in Islam

Jakat is the third pillar of the Islamic doctrine. The word zakat has no satisfactory Arabic etymology. It is probably derived from the Aramaic zakut which refers to the ‘purification at the increase of one’s possessions.’ In the religious sense zakat is that part of a Muslim’s earnings which is payable as tax in the name of God, and is to be given to certain persons according to the rules of the Shari'a. It is prescribed by the Qur’an as a form of piety for all believers (9:5; 9:11).  It is a tax on savings and not on income as it is in other systems.         

The taxable properties are mainly animals (camels, cattle, sheep, and goats), grains and fruits (wheat, barley, dates, and dry grapes), metals (gold and silver), and merchandise. The beneficiaries of the tax are the poor who own less than the prescribed minimum for giving zakat, the destitute, people who collect the zakat, Muslims who are in debt, travellers whose resources are exhausted, those who are serving for the cause of Islam, slaves, and those who perform the acts of benevolence.Just as Allaah has created people with different colours, attitudes and levels of knowledge, so too their deeds and provision vary. He has made some of them rich and some poor, to test the rich as to whether they show gratitude, and to test the poor as to whether they are patient. Because the believers are a brotherhood, and brotherhood is based on compassion, kindness, love and mercy, Allaah has enjoined upon the Muslims zakat which is taken from the rich and given to the poor. Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning), “Take Sadaqah (alms) from their wealth in order to purify them and sanctify them with it, and invoke Allaah for them. Verily, your invocations are a source of security for them” [al-Tawbah 9:103]

Zakat purifies and cleanses wealth, and purifies the soul from stinginess and miserliness. It strengthens the love between the rich and poor, takes away hatred, makes security prevail and brings happiness to the person.   

5. b) Adi Granth:

The Adi Granth or Guru Granth Sahib is the most important scripture in the Sikh religion.  It contains the poems of the first five Gurus: Nanak (974), Angad (62), Amar Das (907), Ram das (679), Arjun (2218), Gobind Singh who incorporated 115 hymns composed by his father Tegh Bahadur. Adi Granth in the present form has about 6,000 hymns in 1430 pages and thirty one sections. The language used in the Adi Granth is Gurmukhi. The Adi Granth is soteriological in character and the basic concern is the essential unity between God and the human soul. Right living is the key to a proper relationship with God.  Truth, contentment, and meditation are the three important ideas dealt with in the Adi Granth.

d) Navjote:

Navjote is the initiation ceremony of the Parsi child into the fold of Zoroastrianism. The ceremony of the initiation consists of the investiture of the child with a sacred shirt called sudre and a sacred thread called kusti. A Zoroastrian may put on any dress he likes, but he must put on the sacred shirt and the thread as the symbol and badge of his religion. Seven is the age at which it is enjoined to initiate a child. The child is made to go through a sacred bath or a kind of purification, known as Nahan.

f) Yajna:

Sacrifices form the central theme of the Vedic religion and philosophy. It is in fact an ancient, far-reaching, and pervasive intuition of the Surti. This word has the significance of ‘action’, understood as the act of worship and sacrifice. Man can be saved only by the performance of sacrificial worship; apart from such worship he is powerless and at the mercy of blind forces. The sacrifices not only please gods but also feed them. Through them sins are also atoned for. The important Vedic sacrifices are the Srauta sacrifices and the Grihya rituals. The Srauta sacrifices are divided into the nitya (regular) sacrifices and naimitika (occasional) sacrifices. The Grihya rituals, refer to five daily sacrifices (Panchamaha-Yajnas) to be performed daily: 1) the sacrifice to the gods (Deva-Yajnas) 2) the sacrifice to the beings (Bhuta Yajnas) 3) Pitr-Yajna- sacrifice to the departed souls, 4) Brahma Yajna- recitation of Vedic texts, and 5) Manusha Yajna (Sacrifice to men). The genuine idea of sacrifice was soon degenerated into mere ritualism and magic. Sacrifices came to be regarded as the magical means, having the automatic power to bring about any wish of the sacrificer. They were even used to make evil fortune fall on gods as well as one’s own enemies.

g) Tao:

Tao means 'the Way' or 'Way of Life.' Tao is the first-cause of the universe. It is a force that flows through all life. The Tao surrounds everyone and therefore everyone must listen to find enlightenment. A believers’ goal is to harmonize themselves with the Tao. Lao - Tse is the supposed author of the Tao Te Ching, a small book containing the main tenets of Taoism. He was a contemporary of Confucius, who visited him several times and who was deeply impressed by the spirituality and humility of Lao - Tse.  Taoists believe that ‘all things originate from Tao, conform to Tao, and to Tao they at last return.' Taoism (or Daoism) refers to a variety of related philosophical and religious traditions that have influenced Eastern Asia for more than two millennia, and have had a notable influence on the western world, particularly since the 19th century.

 h) Tower of silence:

Zoroastrians strongly connect physical purity with spiritual purity. Therefore washing is such a central part of purification rituals. Conversely, physical corruption invites spiritual corruption. Decomposition is traditionally viewed as the work of a demon known as Druj-I-Nasush, and the corrupting influence of this process is viewed as contagious and spiritually dangerous. As such, Zoroastrian funeral customs are primarily focused on keeping contagion away from the community. Because of this reason there is an elaborate process for funeral rites. The body is traditionally moved within one day to the dakhma or Tower of Silence.  At the dakhma, the shroud and clothes are removed with the help of tools rather than bare hands and are then destroyed. Corpses are left on the platform to be picked clean by vultures, a process which takes only a few hours. This allows a body to be consumed before dangerous corruption sets in. Prayers are regularly said for the dead for the first three days after death, for this is the time that the soul is understood to remain on earth. On the fourth day, the soul and its guardian (fravashi) ascend to Chinvat, the bridge of judgment.