RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

            RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Block 1: Basics of Research in Philosophy

UNIT 1           INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH IN GENERAL

1.1       INTRODUCTION

M S Sridhar understands research as “systematic, controlled, empirical, critical and self-correcting investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena,”: i.e., Systematic & controlled empirical self-correcting research is a combination of both experience & reasoning and must be regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth (particularly in natural sciences). Since it involves experience and critical reasoning, it may be regarded as the “most successful approach” to the discovery of truth. Further, we can claim that in a general way, everyone does research, but they do not write it down. Without trustworthy and tested published research available we are dangerously lost in the experience, opinions and hearsay and such a data cannot be used for further study.

In short research methodology may be defined as the “science of studying how research is done scientifically (Sridhar).” It is a way to systematically solve the research problem by logically adopting various steps. Proper methodology, employed in research, helps to understand not only the products of scientific inquiry but the process itself. Such a research methodology aims to describe and analyze methods, throw light on their limitations and resources, clarify their presuppositions and consequences, relating their potentialities to the twilight zone at the ‘frontiers of knowledge.’ Thus research methodology provides the tools for conducting serious and useful research. It is applicable to all fields of science, including humanities and philosophy. In this unit we study further about research in general, the tools used for it and the methods employed for doing research. In the concluding part, we focus on the outcome of the research in terms of report or paper, which further advances the useful human knowledge.

1.2       RESEARCH IN GENERAL

It may be proper to begin by saying what research is not. Definitely it is not mere information gathering. It is not even mere shifting of facts from one source to another. Further it is not merely rummaging for information, which cannot be properly made use of. Positively stated, research is the systematic process of collecting and analysed information to increase our understanding of the phenomenon under study. It is the function of the researcher to contribute to the understanding of the phenomenon and to communicate that understanding to others (Venkataram 2010).

Research is thus about understanding an issue or asking and answering a complex question or solving a problem. So, to start with, we need to identify an issue, question, or problem. Then we need to discuss with people who want or need your study. Listening to their suggestions and problems will help us. Further, we need to find out what's already known about it. For this talk with experts and/or read their reviews and the other original research on the topic by different scholars. Then we need to plan, budget and proceed with our study accordingly. Do not exceed the time limit and the budget of our planned study. Then we need to conduct research, record our findings in writing and submit it for assessment. Publication in quality journals enhances the worth of the study and makes it available to larger audience. In academic circles the slogan “publish or perish” still dominates.

It helps to have a good supervisor, good colleagues, and/or knowledge or practical experience of and affinity for a topic (See Hopkins 2010). It is essential to read journal articles to find out what's already known. Many authors also often point out topics for future research. This prevents doing research on an area already explored and thus prevents wasting valuable time and effort. It may be emphasized that most serious research projects are supposed to be original investigations. Either you obtain new data or information about a phenomenon. Or you reach a novel conclusion and try to publish it. Briefly we can say that the distinct characteristics of research is that it originates with a concrete question; requires clear articulation of a goal and a specific plan for proceeding. Usually research divides a principal problem into more manageable sub-problems.

Benefits of Research Methodology

Sridhar (2010) formulates the following benefits of adequate research methodology both for the researcher and for the body of useful knowledge.

1. Advancement of wealth of human knowledge in any field.

2. Provides tools of research to look at life objectively.

3. Develops a critical and scientific attitude, disciplined thinking or a bent of mind to observe objectively (scientific deduction & inductive thinking); Skills of research will pay-off in long term particularly in the µage of information (or too often of misinformation)

4. Enriches investigator and their  practices; it provides opportunity to study a subject in depth; Enable us to make intelligent decisions; Understand the problem which no other kind of work can match

5. As consumers, research output helps to inculcate the ability to evaluate and use results of earlier research with reasonable confidence and take rational decisions

6. Doing research is the best way to learn to read and think critically and creatively.

Check Your Progress I

1.3       RESEARCH CIRCLE

Research is guided by the specific research problem, question or hypothesis. It accepts certain critical assumptions. It definitely requires the collection and interpretation of data in an attempt to resolve the problem that initiated the research. This leads to further clarification of the question and the proposed solutions. Thus research is, by its nature, cyclical or, more exactly, spiral or helical. Research originates with a question: Examples: Are philosophers accepted well in the society? What do street children eat in a day? Why do poor people appear happier? What is the relationship between belief in God and good moral life?  It requires clear articulation of a goal: What problem do you want to solve? Moral degradation? Deepening of faith in God? Change of behaviour?  Praying more often? Building up an adequate world-view?

Further, good research  requires a specific plan. It is not groping in the dark to find a solution. In fact, it is a planned discovery with outlined steps for tacking the problem. It implies a design of study specific to get relevant data needed. In a good research we need to divide problem into sub-problems. The main problem is divided to into more manageable problems that will answer the main problem. (“Manage the unavoidable and avoid the manageable”). Example: Main problem: “How do you go from Pune to Delhi?” Sub-problems: What are the ways to go there? What is the most convenient transportation? How much will it cost to travel by these routes? How long will the trip last? This, in turn, is guided by specific research problems, questions and hypothesis. A hypothesis is a logical supposition, a reasonable guess, an educated conjecture that provides a tentative explanation for the phenomenon under investigation. It can also provide information in resolving the specific problem and in the process, the main research problem. Ex. If you switch on the lamp and it does light what is your reasonable guess as to the reason why it does not light?

A good research accepts certain critical assumptions. Assumptions are similar to axioms in geometry – self –evident truths -the sine non qua of research. They must be valid for the research to be meaningful. For example, if a research wants to evaluate the knowledge gained from a nutrition education class, one assumption would be regular attendance to the class of participants. A good research requires collection and interpretation of data to resolve problem initiated. Data collected based on objectives or research questions. Data collected becomes meaningful when it is interpreted correctly. Methodology of the project controls how data are to be  collected, arranged, synthesized and interpreted. A good research by nature is cyclical,    or    spiral or   helical. It follows logical developmental steps as follows: Questioning mind asks “why?” One question becomes the problem. Later, problem divided into simpler sub-problems. Then preliminary data gathered. It may be that data point to alternative solution. So further data collected more systematically. Then the data are processed, leading to the possible discovery. This will enable the researcher to see if the hypothesis supported or not. If the hypothesis is proved wrong, modifications are made to it and the process repeats itself, till a satisfactory hypothesis is formulated. Thus good research process.

Remark on the credibility of materials used in research: It is important for us to know the reliability of the materials that we base the data or information used in our research. Every materials we get should not be used, since they may be prejudiced or motivated. Some significant questions to find out the reliability of the already existing research material are: In what source did you find the article? Was it reviewed by experts in the field before publication? Does the article have a stated research question or problem?  Or, can you determine the focus of the work? Does the article describe the collection of data, or does it synthesize  other studies in which data were collected? Is the article logically organized and easy to follow?  Does the article contain that outlines and reviews previous studies? In what way is this relevant to the research problem? Are the procedures clear enough that you could repeat the work and get similar results? How were the data collected and how were they analyzed? Do you agree with what was done? Do  you agree with the interpretation of results? Reflect on the entire article. What, for you is most important? What are interesting? What are the strengths and weaknesses? Will you remember the article in the future?

1.4       TOOLS OF RESEARCH

A tool is a specific mechanism or strategy that researchers use to collect, manipulate or interpret data. Not to equate tools of research with methodology. A methodology is the general approach that a researcher takes  in carrying out the research process. Six general tools of research are: Library and its resources (most useful for philosophy students), Computer and software, Techniques of measurement, Statistics  (The program SPSS is recommended for research based on statistics), The human mind (this is the strength of philosophy students), Language.

The library

For a philosophical research the library is always the starting point. Here the following will be very beneficial: Referring to the Card catalogue, Browsing through Indexes and abstracts, Consulting the Reference librarian, if s/he is accessible. Browsing the shelves gives a first hand knowledge of the books and journals available on the topic of research.

Computer and Software

In today’s context, good research cannot be done without adequate computer facilities. Computer facilitates not just writing, but collecting data (internet, online journals, libraries, etc.) and processing them. Some software packages for qualitative searches are NVivo, Q-Method, WEFT. For quantitative research, some of the softwares used are: Excel, XLSTAT, SAS and SPSS. So for any research today adequate and appropriate use of internet and computer is a necessary.

Techniques of Measurement

Measurement may be done in the laboratory or in the world outside. Interviews serve a useful function. Measurement is limiting the data of any phenomenon- substantial or insubstantial – so that those data may be interpreted  and compared to acceptable qualitative or quantitative standard. So the techniques used in measurement are of vital importance for the result we arrive at. Validity and reliability of measurement instrument is to be tested. Validity – extent to which the instrument measures what it is supposed to measure. Reliability – the consistency with which a measuring instrument yields a certain result when the entity being measured has not changed. Both validity and reliability reflect the degree to which we may have error in measurements.

Statistics

In order to process the result from data collected,  statistical processing & analysis are to be done, especially in cases of large sample. Statistical methods are helpful to test the accuracy of the results obtained. Today we can better do it using statistical softwares. So a basic knowledge of statistics is necessary for any researcher.

The human mind

Truly, the strategies used by the human mind to discover the unknown helps us in testing the hypothesis, which could become the answer to the question to be answered. Deductive logic: Reasoning that begins with a premise (assumptions, widely accepted “truths” then to the conclusion; useful for generating hypothesis and testing theories. Critical thinking:  Involves evaluating information or argument in terms of accuracy and worth; it may involve: Inductive reasoning: It begins with an observation from where conclusions are drawn ; observe sample and draw generalization to the population. Scientific method: Method where insight into the unknown is made by  1) identifying  a problem that defines the goal , 2) states the hypothesis that when confirmed, resolves the problem , 3) gathering data relevant to the hypothesis, 4) analyzing and interpreting data to see if data supported the hypothesis nor not; also uses both deductive and inductive reasoning.

Language for adequate expression

Proper use of language enables us not only to communicate but also to think more effectively. Clear and concise use of language in writing is important in research. Writing down ideas helps the investigator to get clarity of mind. This, in turn, is useful to organizes thoughts systematically to give the proposed answer to the readers. Writing down the answer is helpful in detecting  gaps and logical flaws in thinking in formulating the final answer.

1.5       METHODS: QUANTITATIVE OR QUALITATIVE

The method used in research may be quantitative or qualitative.  Qualitative methods are often required. It may be remembered that often you arrive at an answer by applying logic (= common sense?) and skepticism to your knowledge and to the information you gather. So let us be wary of conventional wisdom and your own prejudices.

Quantitative method in Research that with the quantities of things and that involves the measurement of quantity or amount. With quantitative method we gather data with an instrument, such as a stopwatch, a blood test, a video analysis package, or a structured questionnaire. Here we derive measures or variables from the data, then investigate relationships among the variables. Here testing of a hypotheses becomes easy. The error of measurement are crucial since we know that almost all measures have possibility of errors. Such errors affect the relationship between measure, leading to errors in validity and reliability of the final result. So a  pilot study to investigate error can be carried out first.

Qualitative research deals with the quality, type, or components of a group. It is usually exploratory in nature and uses procedures such as in-depth interviews and focus group interviews to gain insights  and propose solutions to problems posed by the investigator. With qualitative methods we gather information or themes from texts, conversations or loosely structured interviews, then we try to articulate a coherent story. The open-ended nature of these methods allows for more flexibility and serendipity in identifying factors and practical strategies than the formal structured quantitative approach. It is possible that in qualitative research, the direction of the research may change mid-stream. Software such as NVivo, Q-Method or WEFT can be of help in qualitative analysis.

Other formal procedures that enhance trustworthiness of the result are: Triangulation – Triple checking of a hypothesis that aims for congruence of information  from various sources. respondent validation: Here the respondent is asked check the researcher’s hypothesis in a scale of strongly agree to strongly disagree. Peer debriefing: colleagues of the investigator or or experts can be asked to check the analysis. Hybrid or mixed method: Here we may analyze a sample of cases first qualitatively.  Then we may code information into values of variables to make inferences about a population quantitatively.

Qualitative methods applied to a sample often result in a small sample size because (1) subjects are hard to get, the interviews are too time consuming, or (2) the researchers dislike the idea of large samples. But a study with a small sample can adequately characterize only strong associations (large effects) in a population. So, these small-scale qualitative studies are not definitive for a small or trivial effect, which may be actually important in the hypothesis formulated. Furthermore, open-ended inquiry is equivalent to assaying many variables, so there is a high risk of finding a spurious association. It may be emphasized that if the sample is small, the spurious association will be strong. Therefore, small-scale qualitative studies are not definitive even for a moderate or large effect.  So based on our reasonable guess from qualitative methods, we may use quantitative methods or surveys to reinforce our answers. Such a combined method is more useful.  The conclusion is: when using qualitative methods to generalize to a population, you need a large sample to characterize small effects. So a hybrid of qualitative and quantitative may be more profitable for some research.

Concluding Remarks

Qualitative research methods have been developed and refined through attempts to understand the patterns and associations in human behaviour and relationships in disciplines such as sociology, anthropology and educational psychology. However, they also formed the basis of the natural sciences where the natural world was initially described and chronicled by narrative researchers. Qualitative and quantitative methods are not mutually exclusive, rather, different degrees of mixing of the methods occur as the following examples illustrate. Both qualitative and quantitative research is fundamentally concerned with discerning similarities and differences in what they choose to observe. New insights and models are suggested by the nature of these contrasts and approximations, whether they are measured in numbers or described in words. However, each mode of research, each way of looking at the world, creates different modes of knowing and understanding.

Adding qualitative research methods to the quantitative methods used in general practice research will allow the development of a research base for the discipline that matches its practice and its values, and opens up new questions to research. Qualitative research often demands an examination of the assumptions behind a research question and the influences on our thinking. This process increases our understanding of the forces shaping all our research including personal experience, political constraints and academic acceptability. This can clarify the limitations of research as well as leading to further research questions. (Griffiths and Marinker  1996)

1.6       THE PRODUCT: RESEARCH REPORT OR PAPERS

A major goal of research is prepare several research papers based upon the studies undertaken. Written and oral communications skills are probably the most universal qualities sought in a good research.

General form of a research paper

An objective of organizing a research paper is to allow people to read your work selectively. When I research a topic, I may be interested in just the methods, a specific result, the interpretation, or perhaps I just want to see a summary of the paper to determine if it is relevant to my study. To this end, many journals require the following sections, submitted in the order listed, each section to start on a new page. There are variations of course. Some journals call for a combined results and discussion, for example, or include materials and methods after the body of the paper. The well known journal Science does away with separate sections altogether, except for the abstract. (Caprette) Your papers are to adhere to the form and style required for the Journal of Biological Chemistry, requirements that are shared by many journals in the life sciences. These general guidelines are to be followed in any written reports, except when the guides or editors give explicitly different instructions.

•           To make a paper readable

•           Print or type using a 12 point standard font, such as Times, Geneva, Bookman, Helvetica, etc.

•           Text should be double spaced on 8 1/2" x 11" paper with 1 inch margins, single sided

•           Number pages consecutively

•           Start each new section on a new page

•           Adhere to recommended page limits, set by the guide.

•           Mistakes to avoid

•           Placing a heading at the bottom of a page with the following text on the next page (insert a page break!)

•           Dividing a table or figure - confine each figure/table to a single page

•           Submitting a paper with pages out of order

•           In all sections of your paper

•           Use normal prose including articles ("a", "the," etc.)

•           Stay focused on the research topic of the paper

•           Use paragraphs to separate each important point (except for the abstract)

•           Indent the first line of each paragraph

•           Present your points in logical order

•           Use present tense to report well accepted facts - for example, 'the sky is blue.’

•           Use past tense to describe specific results - for example, “In 1783 Kant wrote the Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics  to summarise his main views.”

•           Avoid informal wording, don't address the reader directly, and don't use jargon, slang terms, or superlatives

•           Avoid use of superfluous pictures - include only those figures necessary to presenting results

In any written report or paper the following divisions are to be made scrupulously.

Title Page: Select an informative title as illustrated in the examples in your writing portfolio example package. Include the Full name(s) and address(es) of all authors,  the name(s) of guide(s) and date submitted.

Abstract: The summary should be two hundred words or less. And normally it should be limited to one paragraph. The purpose of abstract is to introduce the main findings of the report very briefly to an interested reader.

Introduction: The purpose of an introduction is to acquaint the reader with the rationale behind the work, with the intention of defending it. It places the  work in a theoretical context, and enables the reader to understand and appreciate your objectives.

Materials and Methods: There is no specific page limit, but a key concept is to keep this section as concise as you possibly can. People will want to read this material selectively. The reader may only be interested in one formula or part of a procedure. Materials and methods may be reported under separate subheadings. The objective of this section is to document all specialized materials and general procedures, so that another individual may use some or all of the methods in another study or judge the scientific merit of the work. It is not to be a step by step description of everything the investigator did, nor is a methods section a set of instructions.

Results: The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported. Continue to be concise, using figures and tables, if appropriate, to present results most effectively. See recommendations for content, below. The purpose of a results section is to present and illustrate the findings. Make this section a completely objective report of the results, and save all interpretation for the discussion.

Discussion: The objective in this section is to provide an interpretation of the results and support for all of the conclusions, using evidence from the experiment and generally accepted knowledge, if appropriate. The significance of findings should be clearly described. Interpret the data in the discussion in appropriate depth. This means that when we explain a phenomenon we must describe mechanisms that may account for the observation. If the results differ from the original expectations, explain why that may have happened. If the results agree, then describe the theory that the evidence supported. It is never appropriate to simply state that the data agreed with expectations. We need to elaborate. Decide if each hypothesis is supported, rejected, or if we cannot make a decision with confidence. Do not simply dismiss a study or part of a study as "inconclusive." Normally, an inconclusive study is not really a scientific study.

Bibliography or Literature Cited: List all literature cited in the paper, in alphabetical order, by first author. In a proper research paper, only primary literature is used (original research articles authored by the original investigators). Be cautious about using web sites as references - anyone can put just about anything on a web site, and we have no sure way of knowing if it is truth or fiction. If we are citing an on line journal, use the journal citation (name, volume, year, page numbers). Sometimes some of the papers may not require references, and if that is the case simply state that "no references were consulted."

Writing to communicate: Say what we mean to say clearly and consciously. Keep primary objective in writing and focus discussion accordingly. Provide overview of what will be discussed. Organize ideas from general to specific using headings and subheadings. Provide transitional phrase, sentences or paragraphs to help readers follow the flow of thought. Use concrete examples to make abstract ideas understandable. Use appropriate punctuation. Use tables and figures to present findings more adequately. Summarize what was said at the conclusion of the paper. Anticipate revision of draft of report.

1.7       LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have seen the importance of research and research methodology in fostering knowledge. We dealt with the process of research and the tools of research. Then we saw how as a scientific technique, research methodology leads to scientifically verifiable results helping us to solve problems efficiently.

1.8       KEY WORDS

Triangulation: It is a triple checking of a hypothesis that aims for congruence of information  from various sources.

Qualitative Method: Methods of social research that do not depend on comparing quantities. It involve the collection and analysis of information based on its quality and NOT quantity. They are methods in which the results are primarily conveyed in visual or verbal forms.

UNIT 2           ORIGINAL UNITY OF PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE

Contents

            2.0       Objectives

            2.1       Introduction   

            2.2       Myth, Philosophy and Science: Original Unity

            2.3       The Myth: A Spiritual Metaphor

            2.4       Myth, Philosophy and Science

            2.5       The Greek Quest for Unity

            2.6       The Ionian School

            2.7       Towards a Grand Unification Theory or Theory of Everything

            2.8       Einstein’s Perennial Quest for Unity

2.9       Conclusion: Philosophical Quest

2.10     Let us Sum up

2.11     Key Words

2.12     Further Readings and References

2.0       OBJECTIVES

•           To study basic human quest for unity that has given rise to philosophy, religion and science.

•           To trace the origin of human knowledge to our quest for understanding: the self, world and God.

2.1       INTRODUCTION

In order to trace the original human quest meaning through philosophy and science, we first speak of humans as the myth-making animals. Once we understand myth in a positive sense, then we can make use of our philosophical and scientific quest as emerging from our innermost sense of unity. For this purpose we use insights from the beginnings of philosophy, the Ionians who searched for the ultimate that is the basis of everything else. Then we look into the greatest scientist, ever lived, Albert Einstein, who painstakingly tried to formulate a unified theory of everything. Our argument is that there is an human quest for unity, out of which philosophy and science have emerged. So there was that original unity. Now though they follow different methods and have different goals, at the ultimate level, as human beings we use everything at our disposal – science, religion and philosophy – to open ourselves to that unity. Such a search for the original unity, in fact promotes diversity and  thus makes our lives really human.

2.2       MYTH, PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE: ORIGINAL UNITY

As we know, humans are part of large and complex cosmic tradition going back to about 13.7 billion years, when the Big Bang gave rise to the known universe of today! About 4.5 billion years ago the solar system was formed. Further, 4.5 million years ago humans (Homo sapiens) evolved. About 20,000 years ago Neanderthals would sit around the fire at night watching starry sky and listening to the sounds from far. They were trying to understand the world around them. They were trying to make sense of life, but more importantly, of death. How did dead people show up in their sleep, in their dreams? What could be made of their own impending deaths? In order to honor the dead person, Neanderthals buried their dead with flowers and beads. They also took care of the sick and elderly. In trying to understand death through ritual and ceremony, Neanderthals gave us their greatest gift: mythology. This endures till today though in different forms (Pandikattu 2009)

At first primitive humans thought very little about anything but immediate things. They were preoccupied thinking such things as: “Here is a bear; what shall I do?” Or “There is a squirrel; how can I get it?” Until language had developed to some extent there could have been little thinking beyond the range of actual experience, for language is the instrument of thought as bookkeeping is the instrument of business. It records and fixes and enables thought to get on to more and more complex ideas.  Primordial man, before he could talk, probably saw very vividly, mimicked very cleverly, gestured, laughed, danced, and lived, without much speculation about whence he came or why he lived. He feared the dark, no doubt, and thunderstorms and big animals and queer things and whatever he dreamt about, and no doubt he did things to propitiate what he feared or to change his luck and please the imaginary powers in rock and beast and river. He made no clear distinction between animate and inanimate things; if a stick hurt him, he kicked it; if the river foamed and flooded, he thought it was hostile. His thought was probably very much at the level of a bright little contemporary boy of four or five. But since he had little or no speech he would do little to pass on the fancies fantasies that came to him, and develop any tradition or concerted acts about them.

In these questions of primitive thought, we must remember that the so called “lowly and savage” peoples of today probably throw very little light on the mental state of men before the days of fully developed language. Primordial man could have had little or no tradition before the development of speech. All  primitive peoples of today, on the contrary, are soaked in tradition - the tradition of thousands of generations. They may have weapons like their remote ancestors and methods like them, but what were slight and shallow impressions on the minds of their predecessors are now deep and intricate grooves worn throughout the intervening centuries generation by generation. Thus the language enabled them to create myths and thus perceive meaning in their own lives.

The word “mythos” is related to the Greek meaning “to be spoken with the mouth”. All myths are fundamentally, if not historically, true and lead to the highest of truths. The myths and their many facets have given birth to religion, mysticism, spirituality, philosophy or in short, to the different articulations of human quest for meaning. Myth is humankind’s basic method of communicating our meaning of the cosmos and answering the why and how regarding birth, life, death of humans and the rhythms of nature. Mythology lives and breathes in us. In other words, we live and breathe our myths. Myth constitutes our very existence. We have been imprinted with certain fears and faiths that have dwelt in our collective unconscious for thousands of years. Mythology is the language of the universe of rituals, ceremonies and symbols. They are the enactments of our desire to have mystical experience, communion with reality. With and through myths we bathe ourselves in the Mystery.

2.3       THE MYTH: A SPIRITUAL METAPHOR

The crucial fact about mythology is that it is a spiritual metaphor. Myth is a guidepost to a higher truth or understanding, which if taken literally destroys its original function and meaning. For example, the myth of Adam and Eve, is a myth describing how humans became conscious and further, conscious of evil. The story is that Eve convinced Adam to eat the apple and we were thrown out of paradise. A literal interpretation of this myth has led generations of people to believe women to be the cause for evil in humanity and think of their suffering in childbirth as a just punishment. By analyzing this myth exegetically and interpreting it, we learn that the serpent in the story in all cultures, with the exception of the Old Testament, represents wisdom, the feminine goddess, power and rebirth because it sheds its skin. The tree is the Tree of Life and the World Tree found in almost every culture and is understood as the link between the conscious and unconscious, the under-world and upper-world. By eating the apple, Eve made the humans almost godlike. This myth might imply that the Divine is within us. This understanding of myth as elaborated by Carl Jung, Joseph Campbell or Paul Ricoeur, goes against the anti-historical or rational interpretations of myths, that was fashionable few decades ago. As opposed to this view we know today that we make myths and myths make us.

Campbell and Jung suggest that we create new myths because the creative act allows us to delve into and become aware of the unconscious which initially created symbols that have lasted a millennium and have bound us physically and psychically. As Campbell holds the mythical image “lies at the depth of the unconscious where man is no longer a distinct individual, but his mind widens out and merges into the mind of mankind, not the conscious mind, but the unconscious mind of mankind, where we are all the same.”

The Purpose: Meaning-Making

Emile Durkheim, noted sociologist and mythologist, explained that myth exists as a social institution that orders rituals, economy, history and meaning structures of the society. He described it as the unconscious of the society. In other words, myth is a global way of thinking through which all social agendas emerge. Joseph Campbell said that we are all living (or enacting) a myth and that we must figure out what our myth is, so that we are not forced to live it against our will. He also warns that a society that takes its myth literally is suffocating itself. Studying mythical symbols is one form of bringing back the wonderfully divine, if not mystical, experience of realizing that all life is connected, at the very least, on an unconscious level. Joseph Campbell gives four purposes to myth: 1. To awaken wonder by putting us back in touch with the child within. 2. To fill all corners or niches of an image with the Mystery.  3. To validate social order. 4. To teach us how to conduct ourselves during the stages of our lives. We can further add: 5. Myths enable us to live the reality of contradictions meaningfully by giving us ideals to live by.

In summary, through myths we make sense of our reality. It provides us with meanings, enables us to organize even the contradictory experiences of our lives. It makes our lives bearable. It explains to ourselves our own experiences. It justifies our actions to ourselves and explains our failures and tragedies. Thus it has basically mediating and a motivating functions. Myths also mediate the infinite through the finite. It situates us in the vast cosmic and divine background, wherein we can find the significance of our own selves. The puny, little human actions are magnified and enriched because of the cosmic and divine significance attached to it. They also motivate our actions. They enable us to live a meaningful life within a wider horizon of significance. It is in such a horizon that we are encouraged to act. Every action, originating from a mythical experience, becomes unique and infinitely more meaningful at least for the actor of the myth.

2.4       MYTH, PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE

The two narrations above are meant to show the similarity and difference between science and myth. True, for the contemporary persons, science provides us with the best knowledge possible. The primitive people used the best resources they had and came up with answers which did not quiet satisfy them, but still provided them with meaning in life and made them search further.  In this process the primitive people gave us the myths, which are truly powerful in shaping our visions.  None of us live according to the myths of these people. But we have our own myths: answers we give ourselves collectively and subconsciously when confronted with deep unresolved questions of life, death, reality and destiny.

As such modern humans do have our own shared myths, which most of the time we are not aware of. Only generations later, they will be able to look at us and point out  the myths in our collective understanding. We do have our science, which explains to us many of the mysteries of old. Science provides us with the best explanation. But let us not forget that science of today may become the myth of yesterday.  As such myth and science  serve the same purpose of explaining the universe to ourselves, but at different levels. The methods they employ are different. The answers they come up with are also diverse. That is because they serve different domains of our enquiry.  Science is primarily empirical and provides us with facts, while myths are based on the known facts and provide us with meaning. Such myths, when elaborated and rationalized become philosophy.

Thus there is a movement from myth  to philosophy and to science. Myths are mostly factually not true but existentially meaningful. Philosophy tries to be factually true and existentially meaningful. Science attempts to be factually true and does not direct address the existential meaning. Myths provide us with intuitive and existential meaning. Philosophy gives us rational meaning. Science shows us empirical facts. Thus it is evident at as human beings we want to know, to transform and to determine our collective destiny. As individuals and group, we aspire to be related to our common origin and work towards our common destiny, though all the resources at our hand: science, religion and philosophy.

2.5       THE GREEK QUEST FOR UNITY

In this section we attempt to show that basically the Greek quest for unity, emanated from their inmost longing to be part of the larger universe – both epistemologically and ontologically. So we shall trace the deepest philosophical quest for unity as the central driving force for all intellectual and even anthropological enterprises. As is generally presumed, the  earliest  schools  of philosophy  in  the  West  can  be  traced to the  sixth century B.C. in Greece. Prominent among them were, first of all,  the  Ionian  School,  the  Pythogorean  School,  the  Heraclitean  School,  and the Eleatic School. Right from the beginning  they had one  quest  in  common:  the  search  for  one  singular  essence  that explained  all reality.  Will Durant points out five unifying elements in the civilization of the  Greece that kept all its scattered cities somehow connected: a common language, with local dialects; a common intellectual life, in  which only  major  figures  in  literature,  philosophy,  and science  are  known  far  beyond their  political  frontiers;  a  common  passion  for  athletics,  finding outlet  in  municipal  and interstate  games;  love  of beauty  locally  expressed in  forms  of  art  common  to  all  the  Greek communities;  and  a  partly  common  religious  ritual  and  belief.

Durant  goes  on  to  say  that  religion  divided the  cities  as  much as  it  united them. The  city deity  was believed to be the preserver, defender, and strength of the  city.  Just  as  the  father  was  the  priest  in  the  family,  the  chief  magistrate  or archon was  the  high priest  of  the  state  religion  in the  Greek city. Polytheism was accompanied by anthropomorphic mythologies. Every craft, profession, and art had its divinity. Thus,  polytheistic  religion pervaded almost  every  facet  of  Greek life.  Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey  expresses  the  view  that  the  gods  control  all human  events  and  the  one  on  the  side  of  the  stronger  god ultimately  wins.  In  such  polytheism,  ethics  mattered less.  The  gods themselves are pictured as slaves of lust and passion. There is no  moral  order  since  there  is  no  single  point  of  reference  in  the  multiplicity of divinities. Each divinity is a point of reference in itself.  Whoever  serves  that  particular deity  is  under  its  patronage  at  the  possibility of becoming an enemy of another deity. Egotism, revenge,  heroism, and valor are extolled, as noted by Domenic Marbaniang.

The shift from multiple points of reference to a consistent moral law  that  is  above  even  the  gods  and determines  the  state  of  the  world  seems  to  have  first  occurred in Hesiod.  Writing  sometime  in  the  eighth century B.C., Hesiod dismissed the notion of fatality and of the  gods  as  being morally  inconsistent.    Though  the  gods  control  nature,  the  moral  order  which  is  a  product  of  Zeus’ commands  controls  the  structure  of  the  universe  and regulates  its  process  of changes. Thus, Hesiod’s writings can be called the transitional bridge  between  religious  beliefs  and philosophical  thinking.  It  might have been this  transitional  venture  of  Hesiod that  the  Milesians  undertook,  indicating  a  substantial  departure  from  the  poetry (myth) of  Homer  and Hesiod and  a  movement  toward a scientific temper (Marbaniang).

According to Will Durant, the predecessor to philosophy was a critical  and skeptical  outlook produced by  motley  of  religions  and cultures  that  intersected each  other  in  the  Greek  metropolises.  Athens  was  becoming a  busy  mart  and port  that  attracted varieties  of  races  and  cults; thus, providing a context for comparison, analysis and thought.  As Durant himself states:  Traditions  and  dogmas  rub  one  another  down to  a  minimum in such centers of varied intercourse; where  there  are  a  thousand faiths  we  are  apt  to  become  sceptical  of  them  all.  Probably  the  traders  were  the  first  sceptics;  they  had seen too  much to  believe  too much;  and the  general  disposition of  merchants  to  classify all men as either fools or knaves inclined them  to question every creed.

Durant’s speculative description of the Greek environment in which philosophy took birth may not be  wrong. It is natural to reason that  two opposing views cannot be both true at the same time. This points  one to the inescapability of reason in searching for truth. The necessity  of  moral  consistency  might  even  be  felt  by  the  traders  for  whom  fidelity matters much. On the other hand, people are seen as seeking to  get  nature  back into  their control  from  the  hands  of  the  gods  by  attempting to  locate  explanations  for  natural  events  in  something other  than the  gods.  Such a unifying singular  was  thought to be some kind of a primordial substance. As Durant writes,  ‘Men grew bold enough to attempt natural explanations of processes  and events  before  attributed to  supernatural  agencies  and  powers;  magic  and ritual  slowly  gave  way  to  science  and control;  and philosophy began.’

2.6       THE IONIAN SCHOOL

As Marbaniang outlines, European philosophy is born in the  seaport town of Miletus, located across the Aegean Sea from Athens,  on the western shores of Ionia in Asia Minor in around 585 B.C. This  is  why  the  first  philosophers  are  also  referred to  as  Milesians  or Ionians. Ionia was a district of ancient Greece on the west coast of  Asia  Minor  (present  Turkey).  It  comprised famous  and important  cities  like  Ephesus,  Clazomenae,  Erythrae,  Colophon,  Smyrna,  and  Miletus. As Marbaniang  notes, it is amazing to note how a  religiously  steeped Ioniaians,  who had  earlier on produced Homer  the  author of Iliad and Odyssey, should suddenly become very secular in its  search  for  wisdom;  thus,  producing the  first  of  philosophers  in Western history.  However, as seen earlier, the quest for control over  nature might have been one reason behind the search for some natural  explanation of the universe. As such the Ionians were searching for a  singular thing that was the essence of all reality. If this essential thing  were  rightly  understood,  then  all  the  other  things  would also  be  understood.  Thus,  human being would be  in  possession  of  a  knowledge  that  would serve  as  an  instrument  to  both  explain  and control  natural  processes. 

The first of these Ionian philosophers is considered to be Thales (624- 546 B.C.). Thales asked the question: What is everything made of, or what  stuff  are  things  composed of?  His  contribution to  thought  was  the  novel  notion  that  though  all  things  differ  from  each other  in several ways, there is a basic similarity between them all and that the  many are related to each other by the One. For Thales, this one thing  that  united all  diversity  and that  was  foundational  to  all  physical  reality was water. According to him, it is from water that everything  proceeds  and into  which  everything is  again  resolved. Following Thales, Aristotle  in his metaphysics observes  that  most  of the first philosophers thought the principles of matter  were  the  principles  of  all  things.  In  other  words,  the  early metaphysicians were more concerned with the material cause of the universe than with any of the other causes.

That  of  which all  things  that  are  consist,  the  first  from  which they  come  to  be,  the  last  into  which they  are resolved (the substance remaining, but changing in its modifications), this they say is the element and this  the  principle  of  things,  and therefore  they  think  nothing is either generated or destroyed, since this sort  of  entity  is  always  conserved,  as  we  say  Socrates  neither  comes  to  be  absolutely  when he  comes  to  be  beautiful  or  musical,  nor  ceases  to  be  when he  loses  these characteristics, because the substratum, Socrates  himself, remains.  Just so  they  say  nothing  else  comes  to  be  or  ceases to  be;  for there  must be some  entity  –  either  one  or  more  than one  –  from  which all  other  things come to be, it being conserved.206

Aristotle  makes  it  clear  that  most  of  the  first  philosophers  thought  that the material cause was the one, indestructible, eternal substratum  to  all  things.  For Thales,  this  one,  uncreated,  indestructible,  eternal  substance  or  essence  of all  things  was  water.  Aristotle  opined that  Thales  might have  got  this notion from  seeing that the nutriment  of  all things is moist, and that heat itself is generated from the moist and  kept alive by it; that the seeds of all things have a moist nature, and  that water is the origin of the nature of moist things (Marbaniang).

Anaximenes and Diogenes saw air as prior to water and as the most  primary  of  the  simple  bodies.  Hippasus  of  Metapontium  and  Heraclitus  of  Ephesus  said that  fire  was  the  primary  principle.  However, Empedocles attempted to combine the above three with an addition  of  a  fourth,  earth,  thus  attributing finality  to  the  four  elements:  water,  air,  fire,  and  earth.  Empedocles  argued that  these  always  remain  and do  not  come  to  be,  except  that  they  come  to  be  more  or  fewer,  being aggregated into  one  and segregated out  of one.  Aristotle,  however,  questioned this  restricting of  ultimate  reality  to  material  causes  only  and  disregarding  the  effective  cause  and final cause of things. He argued that if material causes, like air or  water,  are  the  final  essentialities,  then  the  world cannot  come  to  be  good or  beautiful,  and  is  thus  devoid of  any  goal  or  purpose  for  existence. In his words: 

…it is not likely either that fire or earth or any such element  should be  the  reason why  things  manifest  goodness  and beauty both in their being and in their coming to be, or that  those thinkers should have supposed it was; nor again could  it  be  right  to  entrust  so  great  a  matter  to  spontaneity  and chance. When one man said, then, that reason was present –  as in animals, so throughout nature  – as the cause of  order  and of  all  arrangement,  he  seemed  like  a  sober  man in  contrast with the random talk of his predecessors.209

The Ionian philosophers did not seem to  consider the problem of the  how  or  why  of  the  universe.  In  terms  of  Aristotelian  thinking,  such metaphysics  falls  short  of  authoritative  science  because  “the  science  which  knows  to  what  end each  thing must  be  done  is  the  most  authoritative  of  the  sciences…and this  end  is  the  good of  that  thing,  and in  general  the  supreme  good in  the  whole  of  nature.”210  Thus,  according to Aristotle, it is not just the discovery of the material cause  but also the discovery of the efficient and final causes that is important  in this search for ultimate reality. This need to unravel the other causes  manifests  itself  though naively  in  theories  that  regard elements  like  fire “having a nature which fits it to move things” as the first principle. 

The basic drive was, however, to find out that one element that united  and was  fundamental  to  all  of  nature.  This  doesn’t  mean  that  there  weren’t  some  who  seemingly  posited a  pluralistic  foundation  of  the  universe  as  can  be  seen  in the  later  Thracian materialistic schools  of Leucippus  and Democritus.  But  even  in the  atomic  theory  of Democritus,  the  atoms  are  all  made  of  the  same  matter  though  they  differ in shape, size, weight, sequence, and position. They are minute,  invisible,  indivisible,  indestructible,  and eternal.211  The  quest  for  the  One  cannot  be  evaded in  latter  thinking.  The Ionians,  thus,  can  be  considered to initiate the quest for the One in Metaphysics. 

In summary, the Ionian philosophers beginning with Thales searched  for the one, fundamental, element or principle that united all of nature.  The philosophers disagreed among themselves as to whether this first  principle was  water or air or fire until Empedocles decided to regard  all  three  together  with  a  fourth,  earth,  as  the  four  elements  out  of which all things come. The next question, inevitably, was “what is that  element that  was  the  quintessence  of  the  four  elements?”  The  search for  the  One,  thus,  was  inescapable.  The  One  out  of  which the  many  proceeded was  considered to  be  eternal.  However,  the  early  Ionians  left the question of efficient causality and purpose out of their theories.  Though some  would not  consider  this  to  be  a  major  problem  at  all,  Aristotle thought this to be a real problem. How can chance produce  the  effects  of  beauty  and goodness  in  nature?  There  has  to  be  an efficient  and a  final  cause  of  the  universe.  The  universe  cannot  be  a  free lunch. This led Anaxagoras212 to conclude that the cosmos is the  result  of  an  eternal  governing  principle  called nous  (intelligence,  reason) that  brings  order  out  of  the  chaotic  sea  of  atoms  in  the  universe.  This,  however,  leads  to  two  different  eternal  causes:  the  material  cause  being  the  atoms  and  the  efficient  cause  being reason.  Thus, the quest for the unity in diversity of matter led to the quest for  the efficient cause of all things in general. 

The Ionian speculation of an eternal first material principle alludes to the following consequences, as summarised by Marbaniang: 

1.         Something       cannot  come  out  of  nothing.  Therefore,  something must have eternally existed. 

2.         Something cannot produce its unlike; therefore, all things are  made up of that something. 

3.         Thales  (according to  Aristotle’s  guess):  All  things  grow  in moist; therefore, water is the source of all things. 

4.         Anaximenes  and Diogenes:  Air  is  prior  to  water;  therefore,  air is the most primary of the simple bodies. 

5.         Anaxagoras:  Matter is  composed of  infinite  minute  atoms  which are chaotic in nature. Order out of  chaos can only be  created by mind. Therefore,  nous (an eternal intelligence) is  the  author  of  unity  and order  in  the  universe.   Since  something  cannot  come  out  of  nothing the  material  cause  “atoms”  are  eternal.  Since  chaos  is  natural,  reason  must  be  the eternal author of order in the universe.  

Consequently,  the  universe  itself  is  materialistically  eternal  in  Ionian philosophy.    However,  none  of  the  Ionian philosophers  were  able  to  sufficiently  explain how  the  primordial  elements  that  they  proposed  were the basic foundation of the universe.

2.7 TOWARDS A GRAND UNIFICATION THEORY OR THEORY OF EVERYTHING

From the Ionians of ancient Greek we are making a tremendous leap to the contemporary scientists. We try to show that similar passion has been guiding the contemporary scientist to search for an ultimate theory that unifies everything. Contemporary physics of the early Universe is at the boundary of astronomy and philosophy since we do not currently have a complete theory that unifies all the fundamental forces of Nature at the moment of Big Bang. In addition, there is no possibility of linking observation or experimentation of early Universe physics to our theories (i.e. it is not possible to `build' another Universe). Our theories are rejected or accepted based on simplicity and aesthetic grounds, plus their power of prediction, rather than an appeal to empirical results. Our physics today can explain most of the evolution of the Universe after the Planck time (approximately 10-43 seconds after the Big Bang).  One of the reasons our physics is incomplete during the Planck era is its  lack of understanding of the unification of the forces of Nature during this time. At high energies and temperatures, the forces of Nature become symmetric. This means the forces resemble each other and become similar in strength, i.e. they unify. When the forces break from unification (as the Universe expands and cools) interesting things happen and we have the present universe..

The term Grand Unified Theory or GUT, refers to any of several similar models in today’s particle physics in which at high energy scales where all the forces are merged into one single interaction. The information  about models of grand unification is obtained through indirect means. The Large Hadron Collider (LHC)  being operated at CERN, Geneva,  is such an attempt. It is a gigantic scientific instrument near Geneva, where it spans the border between Switzerland and France about 100 m underground. It is a particle accelerator used by physicists to study the smallest known particles – the fundamental building blocks of all things. It will revolutionise our understanding, from the minuscule world deep within atoms to the vastness of the Universe.

Two beams of subatomic particles called 'hadrons' – either protons or lead ions –travel in opposite directions inside the circular accelerator, gaining energy with every lap. Physicists will use the LHC to recreate the conditions just after the Big Bang, by colliding the two beams head-on at very high energy. Teams of physicists from around the world will analyse the particles created in the collisions using special detectors in a number of experiments dedicated to the LHC. There are many theories as to what will result from these collisions, but what's for sure is that a brave new world of physics will emerge from the new accelerator, as knowledge in particle physics goes on to describe the workings of the Universe. For decades, the Standard Model of particle physics has served physicists well as a means of understanding the fundamental laws of Nature, but it does not tell the whole story. Only experimental data using the higher energies reached by the LHC can push knowledge forward, challenging those who seek confirmation of established knowledge, and those who dare to dream beyond the paradigm. Unifying gravity with the other three interactions (electro-magnetic force, weak force and nuclear force) would form a theory of everything (TOE). Grand Unification is reminiscent of the unification of electric and magnetic forces by Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism in the 19th century, but its physical implications and mathematical structure are qualitatively different.

2.8 EINSTEIN’S PERENNIAL QUEST FOR UNITY

Buried in Albert Einstein’s mail one spring day in 1953 lay a letter from an ordinary student, a 20-year-old high school dropout named John Moffat. Two totally different  persons!  Moffat was an impoverished artist and self-taught physicist. Einstein was a mythic figure  - the world’s most famous scientist. In his later years, Einstein had become increasingly isolated from the physics community, refusing to embrace the strange but powerful theory of quantum mechanics—with its particles that are also waves and that exist in no specific place until they’re observed. Nature, he argued, couldn’t be so perverse. So for nearly 30 years he had pursued a quixotic goal: the creation of a unified field theory to describe all the forces of nature (Tim Folger). That was the occasion for Moffat’s letter. He thought he could offer Einstein some constructive criticism. “I wrote him to say that I wasn’t happy about what he was doing,” Moffat recalls. And he was privileged to get a reply.  “Dear Mr. Moffat, Our situation is the following. We are standing in front of a closed box which we cannot open, and we try hard to discover about what is and is not in it.” That closed box is the universe,  and Einstein has been trying his best to  open it. But, according to many of his colleagues he had contributed almost nothing of importance to physics for almost 20 years, chasing a unified theory. Did he squander his genius by chasing vainly after an ultimate theory?  Though that is the generally accepted view, at least a few physicists now argue that Einstein was far ahead of his time, raising questions that will challenge researchers for decades.  Moffat, who later went on to become a theoretical physicist.: “This, of course, is erroneous. Einstein never wasted his time.” (Tim Folger)

Einstein’s split with mainstream physics came at the very height of his career. In 1927, when he was 48, the world’s leading physicists gathered at a conference in Brussels to debate an issue that remains contentious to this day: What does quantum mechanics have to say about reality? Einstein had won the Nobel Prize in physics for research that showed that light consists of particles of energy—research that laid the groundwork for quantum mechanics. Yet he dismissed the new theory out of hand.  At the conference, he clashed with the great Danish physicist Niels Bohr, starting a quarrel  that would last until Einstein’s death in 1955.

Einstein’s work was not without promise, at first. He was attempting to unite the force of gravity with the force of electromagnetism, and the two forces are similar in many ways.  Einstein spent the last two decades of his life refining this idea. At the same time, he tried to iron out what he saw as problems in his general theory of relativity. In cases where gravity was extremely strong, his theories broke down. Moreover, they seemed to permit the formation of what we now call black holes — objects of such enormous density that their gravity traps even light. “Einstein didn’t like black holes,” Moffat says. “The real motivation for generalizing his gravity theory was to see if he could find, as he called them, ‘everywhere regular solutions’ that fit the equations.” Such solutions, Einstein hoped, would eliminate black holes entirely. So , as Moffart says, “Einstein went into denial, because he had invested so much time in this—years!” Near the end of his life, Einstein realized that he wouldn’t live to complete his work. “I have locked myself into quite hopeless scientific problems,” he wrote, “the more so since, as an elderly man, I have remained estranged from the society here.”

In the 1930s, when Einstein began his work on a unified field theory, physicists believed that there were only two universal forces that the theory would have to unite: gravity and electromagnetism. They have since learned that there are two other fundamental forces as well, a strong force that binds together atomic nuclei and a weak force that governs radioactive decay. “Einstein defined what later became a fundamental problem in physics,” says Carlo Rovelli, a theoretical physicist  in  France, as quoted by Tim Folger.  After about fifty years, Einstein’s once-lonely quest engages thousands of physicists around the world, most of them working on an ambitious physics framework known as string theory. Although this work is grounded in string theory and  it relies heavily on some of the same components that Einstein used.  But the researchers are still cautious. Moffat  says that it is “pure hubris,” to claim there is an ultimate theory of everything. “There’s always something new on the horizon, and then everything starts all over again.”

The general theory of relativity was developed in defiance of centuries of physics. It consumed Einstein for 11 years—from 1905 to 1916—and in the end was proved triumphantly correct. It’s no wonder the memory of that achievement sustained him in later years. In 1953, when the letter from John Moffat found its way to Princeton, Einstein was still doing what he had always done—asking big questions and looking for big answers: looking for simplicity and searching for one unifying principle that grounds everything.

2.9 CONCLUSION: PHILOSOPHICAL QUEST

Philosophy comes from the Greek for "love of wisdom," giving us two important starting points: love (or passion) and wisdom (knowledge, understanding). Philosophy is to be pursued without passion and commitment, since it involves us totally. The primitive Neadnderthals, the Ionians, the contemporary scientists and Einstein, all of them had this goal: to make sense of our  lives and of the world around us. This perennial goal could be attempted through different ways – philosophies, myths, religions and sciences. Because we are human, we just cannot cease to explore and question. Thus the  passionate search of human beings everywhere to make sense of themselves in the world leads us directly to philosophy and religion and indirectly to sciences.  Thus the original unity calls us back to discover our own identity and sense of belonging in this universe.  In this process we grow, evolve and discover meaning.

2.10  LET US SUM UP

We have seem how humans try to make sense of the world  by trying to return to an original unity, which always remains an ideal.  The search for to rediscover that original unity keeps us move forward as human beings.

2.11 KEY WORDS

Myths: Philosophically myths are stories, through which we make sense of our reality. It provides us with meanings, enables us to organize even the contradictory experiences of our lives. It makes our lives bearable.

GUT: The term Grand Unified Theory or GUT, refers to any of several similar models in today’s particle physics in which at high energy scales where all the forces are merged into one single interaction. At this level, all the forces become one and so we have a grand unification of everything.

UNIT 3           EVOLUTION OF THE DISTINCT METHODS OF SCIENCE

Contents

3.0       Objectives

3.1       Introduction

3.2       Definition of Scientific method

3.3       The Scientific Method

3.4       Hypothesis

3.5       Theory-Dependence of Observation

            3.6       Scope of Science and Scientific Methods     

3.7       Prevalent Mistakes in Applying the Scientific Method

3.8       Let Us Sum Up

3.9       Key Words

3.10     Further Readings and References

3.0       OBJECTIVES

The main object of this Unit is to give a pre-taste of different methods of science. In this unit we shall try to give a definition of scientific method, both etymological and real; then let us proceed to know how different scientific methods developed in the history of science. Further let us discuss about the scientific method and its components, the scope and importance of scientific methods in our life and how to use the different methods of science in our day to day life.  At the end we come to know that a scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses and it enhances the life of humanity in different. Thus by the end of this Unit you should be able: to have a basic understanding of methods of science; to know the development of the scientific methods; to understand the all-comprehensive character of scientific methods; to know the importance of scientific methods both at the theoretical and practical levels. to know how to apply scientific methods in experiments.

3.1       INTRODUCTION

The term “science” is used to identify the various sciences, or domains of activity. First to be recognized were the natural sciences, such as physics, astronomy, chemistry, geology, and biology. The human and social sciences have also been termed sciences. Some of these are psychology, economics, education, geography, and sociology. Science has contributed much to the development of human being. By using scientific principles, man has pulled back the curtain of ignorance and advanced the quality of life. The essence of science is the scientific method where a hypothesis is tested by experiment. Instead of endless philosophical discussions to prove a point, experiment becomes the final arbitrator of truth and a successful approach. To make an experiment we need to have distinct methods to prove a point or truth. The so called "method" is so engrained in our way of approaching science today that we tend to take it for granted. The scientific method is the process by which scientists, collectively and over time, endeavour to construct an accurate representation of the world. Let us venture into the exploration of different scientific methods in this unit.

3.2       DEFINITION OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method or process is fundamental to the scientific investigation and acquisition of new knowledge based upon physical evidence. Science manages new assertions about our world with theories, hypotheses and observations. Predictions from these theories are tested by experiment. If a prediction turns out correct, the theory survives, but if a prediction fails the theory fails. The scientific method is essentially an extremely cautious means of building a supportable, evidenced understanding of our world. A scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses. Scientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. The scientific method is the basic method, guide, and system by which we originate, refine, extend, and apply knowledge in all fields.

The word science has its origins in the Latin verb scire, meaning "to know." Although, one can "know" through tenacity, authority, faith, intuition, or science, the method of science or the scientific method is distinct in its notion of intersubjective certification. In other words, it should be possible for other investigators to ascertain the truth content of scientific explanations. "Scientific knowledge thus rests on the bedrock of empirical testability". Empirical replication depends on a comparison of "objective" observations of different researchers studying the phenomenon.

•           The Scientific Method has Four Steps

•           Observation and description of a phenomenon or group of phenomena.

•           Formulation of a hypothesis to explain the phenomena.

•           Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict quantitatively the results of new observations.

•           Performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several independent experimenters and properly performed experiments.

3.3       THE EVOLUTION OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS

Modern western science had its beginnings with the Greeks, who conceived the revolutionary idea that the universe was a kind of machine governed by inflexible laws. This idea became the mechanistic model of science. The Greek philosophers devoted themselves to the task of discovering, through intellectual reasoning alone, the laws of the universe. Therefore Modern scientific thought, therefore, evolved from the Greek philosophers who were influenced by the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. Their greatest successes were in the field of geometry. The Greek successes are attributable to two techniques: abstraction and generalization. So successful were these techniques in developing mathematical theory that the concepts were extended to other disciplines, but with much less success. However, the process of looking for absolute truth through reasoning alone was so ingrained in the Greek thinking patterns that they ignored the experiential evidence which was contrary to their elegant theorems and proofs.

The Renaissance thinkers, however, brought a fresh outlook. The most famous turning point came in 1543 when the Polish astronomer Copernicus published a book which proposed the sun, not the earth, as the centre of the universe. Although his hypothesis had been put forth in 200 B.C., it was in 1543 diametrically opposed to the assumptions of the Greeks and the teachings of the Church. He caused a great uproar within the intellectual world. It was left to Galileo to have the audacity to test the Greek theories. His most famous experiment probably never happened, but it makes a good story. Galileo supposedly dropped two cannon balls of different weights from the leaning tower of Pisa to prove Aristotle's theory that the heavier body would hit the ground first. The resounding thump of the two spheres hitting the ground simultaneously killed Aristotelian physics and elevated inductive reasoning as a scientific tool. Inductive reasoning begins with observations and derives generalizations (axioms) from the observations; whereas deductive reasoning, the method of the Greeks, begins with generalizations and proceeds to predict observations. But it was the recognition during the Renaissance that no amount of deductive reasoning can render a generalization completely and absolutely valid that turned the Greek philosophy upside down.

Francis Bacon offered four steps for scientific work: observe, measure, explain, and verify. And then there was René Descartes who also gave four rules for his method to find the truth in 1961. The rules are as follows:

•           Never to accept anything for true which I do not clearly know to be such.

•           Divide each of the difficulties under examination into as many parts as possible.

•           Begin with the simplest and easiest and then work step by step to the more complex.

•           Make enumerations so complete and reviews so general that I might be assured that nothing is omitted.

The essentially contemporaneous writings of Galileo, Bacon, and Descartes revolutionized scientific procedures and gave rise to what has been called the scientific method. The collective ideas which Galileo, Bacon, and Descartes brought to scientific endeavour have changed somewhat since the 17th century. By the 19th century, the method developed into six steps, and in the 20th century the method developed into seven, namely:

•           Pose a question about nature, not necessarily as the result of an observation.

•           Collect the pertinent, observable evidence.

•           Formulate an explanatory hypothesis, defining relevant assumptions.

•           Deduce its implications.

•           Test all of the implications experimentally.

•           Accept, reject, or modify the hypothesis based upon the experimental results.

•           Define its range of applicability.

The scientific method's essential elements are iterations, recursions interleavings, and orderings of the following four steps:

•           Characterization

•           Hypothesis (a theoretical, hypothetical explanation)

•           Prediction (logical deduction from the hypothesis)

•           Experiment (test of all of the above)

Iteration is the repetition of a process, it is a repetition in a specific form of repetition with a mutable state and recursion is a particular way of specifying or constructing a class of objects with the help of a reference to other objects of the class: a recursive definition defines objects in terms of the already defined objects of the class. Interleaving is a way to arrange data in a non-contiguous way to increase performance. Orderings formalizes the intuitive concept of an ordering, sequencing, or arrangement of the elements of a set.

Characterization

The scientific method depends upon a careful characterization of the subject of the investigation. Here the subject may also be called the problem or the unknown. Observation demands careful measurement and the use of operational definitions of relevant concepts. Formally, these terms have exact meanings which do not necessarily correspond with their natural language usage. For example, mass and weight are quite distinct concepts. New theories may also arise upon realizing that certain terms had not previously been clearly defined. For example, Albert Einstein's first paper on relativity begins by defining simultaneity and the means for determining length. These ideas were skipped over by Newton with, "I do not define time, space, place and motion, as being well known to all." Einstein's paper then demonstrates that these widely accepted ideas were invalid.

3.4       HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon, or alternately a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between or among a set of phenomena. A hypothesis includes a suggested explanation of the subject. It will generally provide a causal explanation or propose some correlation. Observations have the general form of existential statements, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon being studied has some characteristic. Causal explanations have the general form of universal statements, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic. It is not deductively valid to infer a universal statement from any series of particular observations. This is the problem of induction. Scientists use whatever they can, their own creativity, ideas from other fields, induction, systematic guessing, etc to imagine possible explanations for a phenomenon under study. There are no definitive guidelines for the production of new hypotheses. The history of science is filled with stories of scientists claiming a "flash of inspiration", or a hunch, which then motivated them to look for evidence to support or refute their idea. Michael Polanyi made such creativity the centerpiece of his discussion of methodology.

Prediction from the Hypothesis

A useful hypothesis will enable predictions, by deductive reasoning that can be experimentally assessed. If results contradict the predictions, then the hypothesis under test is incorrect or incomplete and requires either revision or abandonment. If results confirm the predictions, then the hypothesis might be correct but is still subject to further testing. Einstein's theory of General Relativity makes several specific predictions about the observable structure of space-time, such as a prediction that light bends in a gravitational field and that the amount of bending depends in a precise way on the strength of that gravitational field. Observations made during a 1919 solar eclipse supported General Relativity rather than Newtonian gravitation.

Predictions refer to experiment designs with a currently unknown outcome; the classic example was Edmund Halley's prediction of the year of return of Halley's comet which returned after his death. A prediction differs from a consequence, which does not necessarily bear a time-dependent connotation. Thus, one consequence of General Relativity, which Einstein deduced, was the size of the precession of the perihelion of the orbit of the planet Mercury. The observed value, on the order of 42 arc-seconds per century, was one of the pieces of evidence for Einstein's characterization of his theory of General Relativity. This consequence was known to Einstein, in contrast to his predictions, in which he had enough confidence to publish.

Experiment

Once a prediction is made, an experiment is designed to test it. The experiment may seek either confirmation or falsification of the hypothesis. Yet an experiment is not an absolute requirement. In observation based fields of science actual experiments must be designed differently than for the classical laboratory based sciences. Scientists assume an attitude of openness and accountability on the part of those conducting an experiment. Detailed recordkeeping is essential, to aid in recording and reporting on the experimental results, and providing evidence of the effectiveness and integrity of the procedure. They will also assist in reproducing the experimental results. Integrity may be augmented by the introduction of a control. Two virtually identical experiments are run, in only one of which the factor being tested is varied. This serves to further isolate any causal phenomena. For example in testing a drug it is important to carefully test that the supposed effect of the drug is produced only by the drug itself. Doctors may do this with a double-blind study: two virtually identical groups of patients are compared, one of which receives the drug and one of which receives a placebo. Neither the patients nor the doctor know who is getting the real drug, isolating its effects.

Once an experiment is complete, a researcher determines whether the results or data gathered are what was predicted. If the experimental conclusions fail to match the predictions/hypothesis, then one returns to the failed hypothesis and re-iterates the process. If the experiments appear "successful" i.e. fits the hypothesis and then its details become published so that others may reproduce the same experimental results.

3.5       THEORY-DEPENDENCE OF OBSERVATION

The scientific method depends on observation, in defining the subject under investigation and in performing experiments. Observation involves perception, and so is a cognitive process. That is, one does not make an observation passively, but is actively involved in distinguishing the thing being observed from surrounding sensory data. Therefore, observations depend on some underlying understanding of the way in which the world functions, and that understanding may influence what is perceived, noticed, or deemed worthy of consideration.  Empirical observation is supposedly used to determine the acceptability of some hypothesis within a theory. When someone claims to have made an observation, it is reasonable to ask them to justify their claim. Such a justification must itself make reference to the theory - operational definitions and hypotheses - in which the observation is embedded. That is, the observation is a component of the theory that also contains the hypothesis it either verifies or falsifies. But this means that the observation cannot serve as a neutral arbiter between competing hypotheses. Observation could only do this "neutrally" if it were independent of the theory.

Thomas Kuhn denied that it is ever possible to isolate the theory being tested from the influence of the theory in which the observations are grounded. He argued that observations always rely on a specific paradigm, and that it is not possible to evaluate competing paradigms independently. By "paradigm" he meant, essentially, a logically consistent "portrait" of the world, one that involves no logical contradictions. More than one such logically consistent construct can each paint a usable likeness of the world, but it is pointless to pit them against each other, theory against theory. Neither is a standard by which the other can be judged. Instead, the question is which "portrait" is judged by some set of people to promise the most in terms of “puzzle solving”. For Kuhn, the choice of paradigm was sustained by, but not ultimately determined by, logical processes. The individual's choice between paradigms involves setting two or more “portraits" against the world and deciding which likeness is most promising. In the case of a general acceptance of one paradigm or another, Kuhn believed that it represented the consensus of the community of scientists. Acceptance or rejection of some paradigm is, he argued, more a social than a logical process. That observation is embedded in theory does not mean that observations are irrelevant to science. Scientific understanding derives from observation, but the acceptance of scientific statements is dependent on the related theoretical background or paradigm as well as on observation. Coherentism and skepticism offer alternatives to foundationalism for dealing with the difficulty of grounding scientific theories in something more than observations.

Demarcation

Scientific Method is touted as one way of determining which disciplines are scientific and which are not. Those which follow the scientific method might be considered sciences; those that do not are not. That is, method might be used as the criterion of demarcation between science and non-science. If it is not possible to articulate a definitive method, then it may also not be possible to articulate a definitive distinction between science and non-science, between science and pseudo-science, and between scientists and non-scientists. Feyerabend denies there is a scientific method, and in his book Against Method argues that scientific progress is not the result of the application of any particular method. In essence, he says that anything goes. Thus the demarcation helps us to know the divergence of scientific methods and non- scientific methods.

3.6       SCOPE OF SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC METHODS    

The scopes of scientific methods are massive and very useful in our life. Scientific method is not a recipe. It requires intelligence, imagination, and creativity. It is also an ongoing cycle, constantly developing more useful, accurate and comprehensive models and methods. Science is not merely a collection of facts, concepts, and useful ideas about nature, or even the systematic investigation of nature, although both are common definitions of science. Science is a method of investigating nature, a way of knowing about nature that discovers reliable knowledge about it. In other words, science is a method of discovering reliable knowledge about nature. There are other methods of discovering and learning knowledge about nature .These other knowledge methods or systems will be discussed below in contradistinction to science, but science is the only method that results in the acquisition of reliable knowledge.

Reliable knowledge is knowledge that has a high probablility of being true because its veracity has been justified by a reliable method. Reliable knowledge is sometimes called justified true belief, to distinguish reliable knowledge from belief that is false and unjustified or even true but unjustified. The important distinction that should be made is whether one's knowledge or beliefs are true and, if true, are justifiably true. Every person has knowledge or beliefs, but not all of each person's knowledge is reliably true and justified. In fact, most individuals believe in things that are untrue or unjustified or both: most people possess a lot of unreliable knowledge and, what's worse, they act on that knowledge. Other ways of knowing, and there are many in addition to science, are not reliable because their discovered knowledge is not justified. Science is a method that allows a person to possess, with the highest degree of certainty possible, reliable knowledge, justified true belief about nature. The method used to justify scientific knowledge, and thus make it reliable, is called the scientific method. The scientific method has proven to be the most reliable and successful method of thinking in human history, and it is quite possible to use scientific thinking in other human endeavours.

Importance of Scientific method

It is of great national importance that the scientific method, which is not just for scientists but is really a general problem solving method for everyone. Centuries of study, debate, and experimentation has established that the best of all methods of obtaining and originating reliable knowledge in all fields is the scientific method. The scientific method is the guide to the mental activities and systems needed to solve the complex competitiveness problems. It is, rather, an attitude, a philosophy, an ethic to guide the process humans use to make sense out of the deluge of sensory experience which is the foundation of our progression to Paradise. As it has evolved, the method is so pervasive that it can be used in any discipline, forcing the theoretician and experimentalist to complement one another. It bridges the gap between ideas and facts, between speculation and experience, between chaos and order. It allows the sorting of the relevant and useful from the impertinent and delusive. It allows the exploitation of those rare moments of intuitive inspiration and insight which have proven so indispensable to scientific progress. However, the method cannot replace intuition, conjure good luck, dissuade misuse, or speed the slow process of intellectual growth and seasoning.

3.7       PREVALENT MISTAKES IN APPLYING THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

In applying scientific methods we inclined to make some mistakes. The scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of the scientist's bias on the outcome of an experiment. That is, when testing a hypothesis or a theory, the scientist may have a preference for one outcome or another, and it is important that this preference not bias the results or their interpretation. The most fundamental error is to mistake the hypothesis for an explanation of a phenomenon, without performing experimental tests. Sometimes "common sense" and "logic" tempt us into believing that no test is needed. There are numerous examples of this, dating from the Greek philosophers to the present day. To ignore or rule out data which do not support the hypothesis is another common mistake. Ideally, the experimenter is open to the possibility that the hypothesis is correct or incorrect. Sometimes, however, a scientist may have a strong belief that the hypothesis is true or false, or feels internal or external pressure to get a specific result. In that case, there may be a psychological tendency to find "something wrong", such as systematic effects, with data which do not support the scientist's expectations, while data which do agree with those expectations may not be checked as carefully. The lesson is that all data must be handled in the same way.

One more common mistake arises from the failure to estimate quantitatively systematic errors. There are many examples of discoveries which were missed by experimenters whose data contained a new phenomenon, but who explained it away as a systematic background. Conversely, there are many examples of alleged "new discoveries" which later proved to be due to systematic errors not accounted for by the "discoverers." In a field where there is active experimentation and open communication among members of the scientific community, the biases of individuals or groups may cancel out, because experimental tests are repeated by different scientists who may have different biases. In addition, different types of experimental setups have different sources of systematic errors. Over a period spanning a variety of experimental tests, a consensus develops in the community as to which experimental results have stood the test of time. The scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of bias or prejudice in the experimenter when testing a hypothesis or a theory. Let us realize this and try to learn the correct way of applying scientific methods.

3.8       LET US SUM UP

We have learnt about the what, why and how of different scientific methods and the evolution of different scientific methods also have shed light upon how to use them in our experiments, decision making and problem solving in our day to day life. The scientific method is intricately associated with science, the process of human inquiry that pervades the modern era on many levels. While the method appears simple and logical in description, there is perhaps no more complex question than that of knowing how we come to know things. The scientific method distinguishes science from other forms of explanation because of its requirement of systematic experimentation. We have also tried to point out some of the criteria and practices developed by scientists to reduce the influence of individual or social bias on scientific findings. Further investigations of the scientific method and other aspects of scientific practice may be found in the references listed below.

3.9       KEY WORDS

Hypothesis is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon, or alternately a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between or among a set of phenomena.

Iteration is the repetition of a process. It is a repetition in a specific form of repetition with a mutable state.

Recursion is a particular way of specifying or constructing a class of objects with the help of a reference to other objects of the class: a recursive definition defines objects in terms of the already defined objects of the class.

Interleaving is a way to arrange data in a non-contiguous way to increase performance. Orderings formalizes the intuitive concept of an ordering, sequencing, or arrangement of the elements of a set.

UNIT 4           RELATION OF SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL METHODS

Contents

4.0       Objectives

4.1       Introduction

4.2       Definitions of Scientific and Philosophical method

4.3       Philosophical method

4.4       Scientific method                   

4.5       The relation    

4.6       The Importance of Philosophical and scientific methods

4.7       Let Us Sum Up

4.8       Key Words

4.9       Further Readings and References

4.0       OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this unit is to analyse the relation of scientific and philosophical methods. In this process we shall try to give a detailed account and definition of philosophical methods and scientific methods. Thus after knowing the two different methods we shall examine the relation of scientific and philosophical methods. In this section let us also know about the relation of science and philosophy. Finally clarifying the importance of scientific and philosophical methods is yet another objective of this unit of study.

Thus by the end of this Unit you should be able:

•           to have a basic understanding of scientific and philosophical methods;

•           to know the relation of scientific and philosophical methods;

•           to relate it with day – to – day life;

•           to understand the all-comprehensive character of scientific and philosophical methods;

•           to know the importance of scientific and philosophical methods both at the theoretical and practical levels.

4.1       INTRODUCTION

Science and philosophy, I would say, the two pillars of the universe that make it revolve efficiently. Philosophy is the study of and the attempt to gain knowledge and truth.  It is a way of looking at things.  It is a collection of ideas and assumptions that are used to interpret reality.  It is “the rational investigation of the truths and principles of being, knowledge, or conduct.”  If we understand that the scientific method is a way of attaining truth, then it falls under the definition of philosophy. Science and philosophy are on the way to finding the truth. In this journey both of them use their own methods to know the truth. In this unit we are going to analyse what is philosophical method and scientific method and how these two methods are related to each other.

4.2       DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL METHOD

Philosophical method is the study and description of how to do philosophy. A method of doing some activity is a systematic or patterned way of doing that activity. So a method of doing philosophy, or a philosophical method, is a systematic or patterned way of answering philosophical questions. The scientific method is used in science as a means of gaining understanding about the physical universe. Scientific method is the basic steps that scientists follow in uncovering facts and solving scientific problems. Scientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. The scientific method is essentially an extremely cautious means of building a supportable, evidenced understanding of our world. Now we know the definitions of scientific and philosophical methods. In the next section let us study the philosophical method.

4.3       PHILOSOPHICAL METHOD

Philosophy is the study of and the attempt to gain knowledge and truth.  It is a way of looking at things.  It is a collection of ideas and assumptions that are used to interpret reality. Philosophy is a quest for the best arguments. A good argument is a clear, organized, sound statement, the reasons which cure the original doubts in a problem. Philosophy is distinguished by the methods that philosophers follow in tackling philosophical questions. Philosophical method involves a commitment to reason and argument as a source of knowledge.

Methodology process: Methodology process is a systematic process of doubting or being skeptical about the truth of one's beliefs. In methodology process methodic doubt which is a systematic process of being doubting the truth of one's beliefs, arguments to support the solutions and dialectic, which is presenting the solution and arguments for criticism by other philosophers, and help them judge their own, are involved.

Doubt and the sense of wonder: Philosophy begins at wonder. Philosophy time and again begins with some simple doubts about accepted beliefs. We get the initial impulse to philosophize from the suspicion that we do not fully understand, and have not fully justified, even our most basic beliefs about the world.

Formulate questions and problems: The next step in the philosophical method is to formulate our doubts in questions to be answered or problems to be solved. Questioning is the first weapon of a philosopher with which one works. The more clearly the question or problem is stated, the easier it will be to identify critical issues, the assessment of which undergirds any genuine progress in coming to some sort of resolution. Here it is not enough to wonder at doubt but to state as clearly as possible what exactly the source of doubt is. Let us take the problem of freedom and determinism. We can say, suppose that, the universe operates according to deterministic causal laws, that is, for everything that happens, there are some laws which made it necessary that thing, and only that thing happened and as a result all events are determined. Suppose also this general principle applies to our choices. Our choices are events in, parts of, the natural world, and so we should fully expect to find a complete causal explanation of those too, explaining why we had to make those choices and no others. Hence all our choices are, on that accounting, determined or necessary. Nonetheless, most of us have a very keen sense that what we choose, we choose voluntarily; we could have chosen otherwise than we did choose. In short, it seems we have free will. But how is it possible, or is it possible, that our choices might be causally determined and free at the same time? This is one way of stating the basic problem of free will and determinism.

In this example of freedom and determinism how can we clarify the statement of the problem? According to the statement, for everything that happens, there are some laws which made it necessary that thing, and only that thing happened. But here we ask, what exactly is the sense of the word necessary here? Or in another place, the statement reads, We have a very distinct impression that what we choose, we choose voluntarily; we could have chosen otherwise than how we did. But what is the strength of this phrase 'could have'? The idea appears to be that it is in some sense possible for us to choose otherwise; but in what sense of ‘possible’ is it possible?  An enquiry into the problem of freedom and determinism, or any philosophical problem, can only benefit from getting very clear about exactly what the problem is, and what the terms used to formulate the problem signify.

Enunciate a solution: To enunciate a theory, or to give a definition or analysis, which constitutes an attempt to solve a philosophical problem is another essential part of philosophical method. In just a sentence or two a philosophical theory by itself can be stated quite briefly very often all the surrounding philosophical text is offered by way of hedging, explanation, and argument. Here as an example let us take a philosophical theory which has to answer the question what actions are right? For this the answer is given by John Stuart Mill, an English philosopher, as the creed which accepts as the foundation of morals utility, or the greatest happiness principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. Consequently, according to Stuart Mill, the rightness or wrongness of actions depends on their consequences; if they tend to cause happiness they are morally right, and if they tend to cause unhappiness they are morally wrong. Whether we accept the answer or not is a different question but it does answer the question, what actions are right.

Justify the solution: Another important part of philosophical method is philosophical justifications, or arguments. An argument is a set of statements, one of which, the conclusion, it is said or implied, follows from the others which is called the premises. We might think of arguments as bundles of reasons which are logically interconnected statements. The reasons are the premises, the claim they support is the conclusion; together they make an argument. Normally philosophers are very good in giving arguments. They are constantly demanding and offering arguments for different claims they make. The reason for this is that it is only a good argument, a clear, organized, and sound statement of reasons to believe something that will ultimately cure us of the original doubts that motivated us to take up philosophy. Let us illustrate this point with an example of an argument. Say Susan has some doubts about religious matters, and she asks the question: Does God really exist? Susan’s answer is, we will say, yes. How might Susan argue for her answer? Here is a very common, popular argument, called the argument from design.

The universe is made up of a huge variety of things, inanimate and living, natural and artificial from the hills and the oceans, to the houses and ships on them, from the stars and planets, to the cities and highways. All of this huge variety of things is, as scientists well know, operating in a splendid order or harmony, much like a very complicated machine, only much more complicated and well-planned than anything that we humans have ever invented. Like a machine, this order or harmony could not have just sprung into existence all on its own; like a machine, it must have had a designer. Moreover, since the universe is so complicated and well-planned, this designer must be incredibly intelligent; and since everything is so well-made for the habitation of humans, this designer must be very benevolent. And of course, as the creator and planner of the entire universe, this designer must be extremely powerful. So the universe must have had a designer which is incredibly intelligent, very benevolent, and extremely powerful; and this designer is what we call God. Therefore, God exists.

This argument is called the teleological argument which is studied the philosophy of religion. It offers a series of interconnected reasons to believe that there does exist the sort of entity that in various religions is called God. This sort of argument is just exactly what philosophers want from each other. To deserve our consideration, the argument does not have to be perfect. It might have some problems. In fact, it might be a very bad argument. But on the face of it, there should be something rather persuasive about it. That gives us something to analyse and learn.

Philosophical criticism: Philosophical criticism is common in the work of philosophers. It is this philosophical criticism that makes much philosophizing a social endeavour and so on. We offer definitions and explanations in solution to problems; we argue for those solutions; and then other people come along and, often, demolish those solutions, throw us into doubt again, and force us to come up with better solutions. This exchange and resulting revision of views is called dialectic. Dialectic is simply philosophical conversation amongst people who do not always agree with each other about everything. These are the five steps that a philosophical method involves in its journey towards finding the truth. Having studied the philosophical method let us move on to know about scientific method.

4.4       SCIENTIFIC METHOD       

The scientific method is the only scientific way accepted to back up a theory or idea.  This is the method on which all research projects should be based.  The Scientific Method is used by researchers to support or disprove a theory. People attempt to understand something sufficiently to reproduce an event and/or accurately predict an event with the scientific method.

The Scientific Method has Four Steps

•           Observation and description of a phenomenon or group of phenomena.

•           Formulation of a hypothesis to explain the phenomena.

•           Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict quantitatively the results of new observations.

•           Performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several independent experimenters and properly performed experiments.

Iterations, recursions, interleavings, and orderings are the scientific method's essential elements of the following four steps. Iteration is the repetition of a process. It is a repetition in a specific form of repetition with a mutable state and recursion is a particular way of specifying or constructing a class of objects with the help of a reference to other objects of the class: a recursive definition defines objects in terms of the already defined objects of the class. Interleaving is a way to arrange data in a non-contiguous way to increase performance. Orderings formalizes the intuitive concept of an ordering, sequencing, or arrangement of the elements of a set.

Characterization: The scientific method depends upon a careful characterization of the subject of the investigation. Here the subject may also be called the problem or the unknown. Observation demands careful measurement and the use of operational definitions of relevant concepts. Formally, these terms have exact meanings which do not necessarily correspond with their natural language usage. For example, mass and weight are quite distinct concepts. New theories may also arise upon realizing that certain terms had not previously been clearly defined. For example, Albert Einstein's first paper on relativity begins by defining simultaneity and the means for determining length. These ideas were skipped over by Newton with, "I do not define time, space, place and motion, as being well known to all." Einstein's paper then demonstrates that these widely accepted ideas were invalid.

Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon, or alternately a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between or among a set of phenomena. A hypothesis includes a suggested explanation of the subject. It will generally provide a causal explanation or propose some correlation. Observations have the general form of existential statements, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon being studied has some characteristic. Causal explanations have the general form of universal statements, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic. It is not deductively valid to infer a universal statement from any series of particular observations. This is the problem of induction. Scientists use whatever they can, their own creativity, ideas from other fields, induction, systematic guessing, etc to imagine possible explanations for a phenomenon under study. There are no definitive guidelines for the production of new hypotheses. The history of science is filled with stories of scientists claiming a "flash of inspiration", or a hunch, which then motivated them to look for evidence to support or refute their idea. Michael Polanyi made such creativity the centerpiece of his discussion of methodology. The present-day system of methods in science is as diversified as science itself. We talk, for example, of experimental method, the method of processing empirical data, the method of building scientific theories and their verification, the method of expounding scientific results, i.e., the classification of methods based on the classification of stages of research activity. We have dealt with scientific and philosophical methods with this background let us move on to study the relation between scientific and philosophical methods.

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4.5.      THE RELATION      

Can philosophy develop by itself, without the support of science? Can science ‘work’ without philosophy? Some people think that the sciences can stand apart from philosophy, that the scientist should actually avoid philosophising, the latter often being understood as groundless and generally vague theorising. If the term philosophy is given such a poor interpretation, then of course anyone would agree with the warning ‘Physics, beware of metaphysics’ But no such warning applies to philosophy in the higher sense of the term. The specific sciences cannot and should not break their connections with true philosophy.

We can find the direct relation of scientific and philosophical methods by analysing the steps. Scientific method starts wish observation and description where in observation plays a vital role. It is this observation paves way to the sense of wonder and doubt which is the first step in the philosophical method. The second method in the scientific method is formulation of hypothesis which includes a suggested explanation of the subject which helps one to formulate questions and problems which is the second step in the philosophical method. Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict quantitatively the results of new observations is the third step in the scientific method. This prediction of quantitatively the results of new observations makes one to enunciate a solution in a problem which is the third step in the philosophical method. The fourth step in the scientific method is the performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several independent experimenters and properly performed experiments. This performance of repeated experimental tests in scientific method helps one to justify the solution that is enunciated in the third step of the philosophical method. Further it leads one to criticize the solution dialectically which is called philosophical criticism, the final step in the philosophical method. This evidently shows how scientific method and philosophical method helps one to arrive at a conclusion and how they complement each other in finding the truth.

In ancient times, as we have seen, nearly every notable scientist was at the same time a philosopher and every philosopher was to some extent a scientist. Which means both scientists and philosophers have used both the methods in their journey towards finding the truth. The connection between scientific methods and philosophical methods has endured for thousands of years. In present-day conditions it has not only been preserved but is also growing substantially stronger. The common ground of a substantial part of the content of science, its facts and laws has always related it to philosophy, particularly in the field of the theory of knowledge, and today this common ground links it with the problems of the moral and social aspects of scientific discoveries and technical inventions.

Philosophy deals with experience rather than speculations. It deals with the same materials as science and its methods even shade into the method of science. The same relation holds with the reference with the use of hypothesis in thinking and in scientific investigation. Philosophers at some time regarded it as their function to examine the unrecognised hypotheses or assumptions which underlie the procedure of scientific workers. A slightly different function which is regarded as a special problem of philosophy is the setting up of hypotheses. It has been pointed out that fruitful hypotheses are sometimes suggested by speculative thinkers before they have been thought of, much less tested, by scientists.

The scientific method has drawn many parallels with the philosophy of modern empiricism and its search for meaningful statements. The scientific method seems to be a constantly moving entity that has evolved from the first conscious thought to the present day. It appears to be changing all the time based not only on the views of individual scientists and philosophers, but also on the social situations and collective intelligence of the times, which interestingly has been affected by the method itself.

Philosophy cannot, for example, give physics specific methods for studying quantum mechanics. But it is concerned with the general approach to discovery of truth in physics. It deals not with the ‘tactics’ of the research process, but with the strategy in the battle for truth. Philosophical methods work in science not directly but mediated by other more specific methods. For example, the principle of historicism as a universal method evolved by philosophy has in biology taken the form of evolution theory, the methodological basis of the modern biological disciplines, and in astronomy this same principle has generated a whole set of cosmogonic hypotheses.

In science, methodology often decides the fate of a research project. Different approaches may lead to opposite conclusions being drawn from one and the same factual material. Describing the role of correct method in scientific cognition, philosophers have compared it to a torch illuminating the road for the traveller in darkness. Even a lame man who chooses the right road will arrive ahead of the aimless wanderer. It goes without saying that method in itself cannot guarantee success in research. Not only a good method but skills in applying it are required. Thus the connection between philosophical methods and scientific methods is mutual and characterised by their ever deepening interaction which is an ongoing process. Now we are clear about the relation between scientific and philosophical methods. This knowledge will help us to understand the importance of scientific and philosophical methods in the forth coming section.

4.6.      THE IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHICAL AND SCIENTIFIC METHODS

Philosophy plays a tremendous integrating role in scientific knowledge. The touchstone of the value of philosophy as a world-view and methodology is the degree to which it is interconnected with life. This interconnection may be both direct and indirect, through the whole system of culture, through science, art, morality, religion, law, and politics. As a special form of social consciousness, constantly interacting with all its other forms, philosophy is their general theoretical substantiation and interpretation. In ancient times, as we have seen, nearly every notable scientist was at the same time a philosopher and every philosopher was to some extent a scientist. Which means both scientists and philosophers have used both the methods in their journey towards finding the truth. The connection between science and philosophy has endured for thousands of years. Science and philosophy have always learned from each other. Philosophy tirelessly draws from scientific discoveries fresh strength, material for broad generalisations, while to the sciences it imparts the world-view and methodological impulses of its universal principles. Many general guiding ideas that lie at the foundation of modern science were first enunciated by the perceptive force of philosophical thought.

Any scientist knows in his/her heart that his/her creative activity is closely linked with philosophy and that without serious knowledge of philosophical culture the results of that activity cannot become theoretically effective. All the outstanding theoreticians have themselves been guided by philosophical thought and tried to inspire their pupils with its beneficent influence in order to make them specialists capable of comprehensively and critically analyzing all the principles and systems known to science, discovering their internal contradictions and overcoming them by means of new concepts.

Truly scientific thought is philosophical to the core, just as truly philosophical thought is profoundly scientific, rooted in the sum-total of scientific achievements. Philosophical training gives the scientist a breadth and penetration, a wider scope in posing and resolving problems. Philosophy may be called the ‘science of sciences’ probably in the sense that it is, in effect, the self-awareness of the sciences and the source from which all the sciences draw their world-view and methodological principles, which in the course of centuries have been honed down into concise forms. As a whole, philosophy and the sciences are equal partners assisting creative thought in its explorations to attain generalizing truth. The philosophical approach enables us to overcome the one-sidedness in research which has a negative effect in modern highly specialised scientific work. It is philosophy that safeguards the unity and interconnection of all aspects of knowledge of the vast and diversified world whose substance is matter.

The scientific knowledge in various fields develops, the stronger is the tendency to study the logical system by which we obtain knowledge, the nature of theory and how it is constructed, to analyse the empirical and theoretical levels of cognition, the initial concepts of science and methods of arriving at the truth. In short, the sciences show an increasing desire to know themselves, the mind is becoming more and more reflective. Self-knowledge is the present-day trend. This trend towards self-knowledge, of which much is said both by scientists and philosophers, is bound to show itself and should show itself in the relationship between philosophical methods and scientific methods. At this juncture I would say philosophical methods and the scientific methods are two sides of a same coin. They both complement each other and enhance our day-to-day life situation. By this time we must have a panoramic view of philosophical methods and scientific methods and its relation and how they help us in our present life.

Check Your Progress III

4.7       LET US SUM UP

Having a good introduction about the philosophical and scientific methods we have studied the definitions of philosophical and scientific methods and this paved the way to venture into what is philosophical method where in we studied the methodology process which is a systematic  process of doubting or being skeptical about the truth of one's beliefs. This methodology process comprises of Doubt and the sense of wonder, Formulate questions and problems, Enunciate a solution, justify the solution and Philosophical criticism. After dealing with the methodology process we moved on to scientific methods where in we studied the four steps of scientific methodology and the four elements that are involved in that method. These two sections presented us what is philosophical method and scientific method. Now the work is to see the relation and that is what we have done in the next section which tells us the relation between philosophical and scientific methods and the connection between philosophical methods and scientific methods is mutual and characterised by their ever deepening interaction which is an ongoing process. This understanding moved us to investigate the importance of scientific and philosophical methods which tells us both methods are important in our everyday life and help us to have a clear self-knowledge. Thus we have finished the unit with a note that philosophical methods and the scientific methods are two sides of a same coin. They both complement each other and enhance our day-to-day life situation.

4.8       KEY WORDS

Argument: an argument is a set of statements, one of which, the conclusion, it is said or implied, follows from the others which is called the premises.

Dialectic: Dialectic is simply philosophical conversation amongst people who do not always agree with each other about everything.

Hypothesis: Hypothesis is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon, or alternately a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between or among a set of phenomena.

Theory: A theory is an explanation of a set of related observations or events based upon proven hypotheses and verified multiple times by detached groups of researchers.

Block 2            Early Methods in Philosophy

UNIT I            DIALECTICAL METHOD

Contents

1.0       Objectives

1.1       Introduction and a Brief Survey of the Method

1.2       Types of Dialectics

1.3       Dialectics in Classical Philosophy

1.4       Dialectics in Modern Philosophy

1.5       Critique of Dialectical Method

1.6       Let Us Sum Up

1.7       Key Words

1.8       References and Further Readings

1.0       OBJECTIVES

Objective of this Unit is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the Dialectical Method (also known as Dialectics and Dialectic), which is one of the most influential philosophical ideas in the history of mankind. The Unit attempts to demystify the seemingly complex idea of Dialectics by providing a lucid account of it as well as the use of the method in different ages in history.  The Unit discusses the methods of Dialectics in important classical and modern philosophers - Heraclitus, Gautama Buddha, Socrates, Aristotle, Hegel, Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels and the applications of these methods. In addition, an attempt is made to discuss the intellectual and historical impact created by the application of Dialectics and Dialectical Method in order to keep students informed about the power of the idea of Dialectic in particular and philosophical ideas in general. It would be difficult to appreciate the power of ideas in Philosophy without being aware of their real-time historical implications. By the time of completion of this Unit, you should have a fair idea of , forms of dialectics, major philosophers of dialectics, important variants of dialectical method, and impact of dialectical thought.

1.1       INTRODUCTION AND A BRIEF SURVEY OF THE METHOD

The term Dialectic is derived from the Greek terms ‘dia’ and ‘logos’ which mean dialogue or a conversation between two persons. Dialectics can be traced back to pre-Socratic philosophy and has been used by different philosophers in different eras of philosophy with different meanings. As a result, the term Dialectics doesn’t have a single meaning or connotation. This is the first important thing that should be taken note of as to the understanding of dialectical method. The point becomes more obvious in the following brief survey of various thinkers of Dialectics. The initial strands of dialectics were associated with the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. Plato first used the term for the art of discussion, in which participants try to arrive at truth by exchanging logical arguments. His work Republic provides a wonderful demonstration of this discussion method.

Aristotle considered Dialectics as a method of examining the commonly held beliefs by the people. (Aristotle, Topics X) According to Aristotle, Zeno of Elea, an ancient Greek philosopher was the founder of dialectical thought. Zeno produced quite a lot of paradoxes to prove motion is impossible. For example, he argued that an arrow shot from the bow doesn’t move because at a given point in time, it would be in rest at some space. Zeno examined the popular beliefs and refuted them based on his logic, hence, according to Aristotle, he was the founder of dialectical thought. Here, Dialectics was meant to deal with the art of argument or discussion. 

Apart from these Greek philosophers, German idealist thinkers Kant, Fichte, Schilling and Hegel made use of this method, particularly Hegel. Kant in his Critique of Pure Reason, criticizing speculative metaphysics said that it is not possible for human reason to grasp things such as God, which do not fall under phenomena, which are appearances and can be grasped by human intellect. He distinguished phenomena from noumena, which consists of things-in-themselves and beyond the grasp of human intellect. Showing the futility of noumenal arguments such as the World has a beginning in time and is limited in space, Kant puts forth an equally forceful counter argument like - the world has no beginning and no limitations in space, it is infinite in time and space; and no argument can be proved at the end. Kant called the first argument as Thesis and the second argument Anti-thesis, where the latter proves the futility of the former. He termed this mode of criticism as ‘Transcendental Dialectic’. Here Dialectic is a method of refutation.

Fichte, in his theory of consciousness, held that evolution of ego, which is the only reality and source of self-consciousness, takes place in three moments. They are (1) the ego, (2) the non-ego and (3) setting both of them in opposition. He calls the first, the thesis, the second antithesis and the third synthesis. While the ego is the principle of knowledge, the non-ego, is equally independent of the ego and unlimited and a negation of the former. The antithesis is assertion of a non-ego in opposition to the ego. The synthesis is the determination of the first two through one another, in such a way that the ego and the non-ego mutually limit each other. Here for the first time, the dialectics got the triadic method and entered into a speculative plane.  

Schelling has attempted to construct nature or the world a priori. His main aim was to reason out the necessary stages in the evolution of nature where he found a dialectical process working through the world. He has comprehended the two opposing activities viz., thesis, and antithesis, which get united in a synthesis. He called this process the law of triplicity, wherein the thesis is action, antithesis is reaction and synthesis is the harmony between the two. Schelling applies the triadic dialectic to every phase of organic and inorganic realms, to individual and social life, to history science and art. Thus it is evident that Schelling regarded nature as a dynamic evolutionary process of reason moving towards the self-conscious reason of man. He has equated the necessary forms of thought with the necessary forms of being.

The next major thinker in this series is Hegel. Modeled on Schelling’s philosophy, presenting his grand philosophical system of the world, Hegel attempts to explain the progress of history through the march of the Absolute or Spirit. According to Hegel, the Spirit realizes itself in the movement of history. At first, the Spirit was a pure idea. The very affirmation of the Spirit faces its negation i.e. the non-Spirit. The being of Spirit negated by non-being of Spirit doesn’t result in nothingness but in becoming, the physical manifestation of the Spirit as the World. In Hegel, dialectical theory entered into a speculative explanation of the Nature.

Bringing the Hegelian dialectics down from speculative plane to reality, Karl Marx applied them in history and showed how the human societies were always in a state of change due to clashing interests of different economic classes. Marx’s economic interpretation of history postulates that society had progressed from one mode of production to another due to the struggle between the classes. In Marxian theory, Dialectics explain different contradictions in the human societies and a conflictual movement of them would lead to further progress.

Thus, the term Dialectics is used differently in different epochs of philosophy. However, in the history of philosophy, two fundamental tendencies – Dialectics as a theory of knowledge that explains natural/social phenomena and Dialectics as a method of discourse – were identified as the major types of Dialectics. However, often, at least in popular writings, Dialectics is being identified with either of these varieties, particularly with the methods developed by Plato or Hegel.

1.2       TYPES OF DIALECTICS

According to the first type, Dialectics is theory of knowledge or a method of understanding that explains any given phenomenon/process/object as a unity of opposites. This variant can be called as Phenomenal Dialectics, phenomenal in the sense that - of, relating to, or constituting phenomena or a phenomenon. The second one explains dialectics as a method of logical discourse which tries to derive truth and this variant can be called as Discourse Dialectics, discourse in the sense that a formal, lengthy discussion of a subject, either written or spoken.

Phenomenal Dialectics: According to Phenomenal Dialectics, any given phenomenon / object/process would always be in a state of motion and it is a unity of opposites. And the development or change of the phenomenon/object/process essentially happens through a constant and often conflictual movement of the two latent opposites.

The variant of Dialectics owes its beginning to Heraclitus, a great natural philosopher from ancient Greece. He explained that all the objects in nature are always in a state of flux and existence of those objects are possible due to tension between the opposites and unity of them.  His famous quote, “You cannot step twice into the same river, for other waters and yet others go ever flowing on” (William Harris, Heraclitus - The Complete Fragments, 20)  indicates not just the ever-changing nature of the river but all the phenomena of the Nature. He said, "Everything is and is not, for everything is in flux, is constantly changing, constantly coming into being and passing away". (Rob Swell, Introduction to The ABC of Materialist Dialectics) Emphasizing the conflictual nature - i.e. unity of opposites - of the aspects of objects and process, he stated that, “It should be understood that war is the common condition, that strife is justice, and that all things come to pass through the compulsion of strife.” (William Harris, Heraclitus - The Complete Fragments, 26)

Friedrich Engels, cofounder of communism along with Karl Marx, wonderfully puts it as “Dialectics is nothing more than the science of the general laws of motion and development of nature, human society and thought.” (Engels, Anti- Dühring). He described Dialectics as "The great basic thought that the world is not to be comprehended as a complex of ready made things, but as a complex of processes, in which things apparently stable, no less than their mental images in our heads, concepts go through an uninterrupted change of coming into being and passing away." (Engels, Anti-Dühring)

For example, Karl Marx, using the Dialectical Method, theorised that  human history was nothing but a chronicle of constant struggle between the divided economic interests of two classes. Analyzing his contemporary times, he opined that capitalism had emerged as the order of the day by defeating feudalism. However, Marx said, its demise was inevitable as it was creating its potential opponent i.e. working class. The working class would defeat capitalism and progress to the next level in the history i.e. to socialism. In Marxian theory of history, one can see constant change and continuous or conflictual movement of the opposites, two defining traits of phenomenal dialectics. Heraclitus, Gautama Buddha, Hegel, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels are major thinkers who developed the phenomenal dialectic method.

Discourse Dialectics

Discourse Dialectics is rooted in the philosophy of Plato, who defined the method and used it extensively in his writings. Indeed the word ‘Dialectic’ was first used by Heraclitus who developed Dialectics as a method of argument for arriving at the truth by the exchange of logical arguments. Platonic Dialectic is based on a dialogue between two or more people who may hold differing views, yet wish to pursue truth by seeking agreement with one another. Two major discourse dialecticians Plato and Aristotle are discussed in this Unit.

    

1.3       DIALECTICS IN CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY

In this section, we shall discuss Phenomenal Dialectics of Heraclitus and Gautama Buddha and Discourse Dialectics of Plato and Aristotle. Heraclitus was a fascinating Greek natural philosopher who predicted quite a few of scientific discoveries made in modern days such as the Law of Conservation of Energy and Law of Conservation of Matter. Heraclitus was deeply concerned about the knowledge levels of his fellow human beings and went on to explain Nature in his cryptic propositions. According to Hegel, Heraclitus was the founder of Dialectic method. His method of Dialectics can be explained by way of two theories - theory of flux and theory of unity of opposites.  He famously said – one cannot step into the same river twice and the one exists and does not exist. According to Heraclitus, everything is and is not; everything is in flux, is constantly changing and constantly coming into being and passing away. By saying this, he meant that the river exists since it is there and it is not there since there is nothing but the flowing waters; the human being who steps into the river also exists since he is and he doesn’t exist since he undergoes change every second.  These notions explain how change is the only permanent law of nature.

Theory of Unity of Opposites

Heraclitus maintained that all the phenomena of Nature were possible due to the conflict and unity between the opposite features/aspects that are latent in those phenomena. When he said, “You cannot step twice into the same river, for other waters and yet others go ever flowing on.” The ‘same river’ and ‘other waters’ are exact opposites. It means, though the waters are always changing, the river stays the same. Indeed, it must be precisely because the waters are always changing that there is a river at all, rather than lake or pond. The message is that river can stay the same over time even though, or indeed because, the waters change. The point, then, is not that everything is changing, but that the fact that some things change makes possible the continued existence of other things. Perhaps more generally, the change in elements or constituents supports the constancy of higher-level structures.

Another insight of Heraclitus, “It throws apart and then brings together again; it advances and retires.” (William Harris, Heraclitus - The Complete Fragments, 31) explains elements coming together in a combinatory process, and then dissociating in Nature. This notion is quite important in understanding the phenomena of Nature in its being, becoming and diminution stages. These stages are exclusive and identical at the same time. Thus unity of the opposite aspects of the same object/process/phenomenon makes the change/development possible. Heraclitus’ theories of flux and unity of opposites, formed the basis for what was later called as Dialectics, had iconoclastic effect in ancient Greek natural philosophy. He openly opposed the permanence of soul and dogmatic practices of erstwhile religion, thus created foundations for materialism in Western thought. Heraclitus’ thought had direct influence on Hegel, who further influenced Karl Marx, which is a clear demonstration of his powerful legacy.

Dialectic Method of Buddha

Gautama Buddha, a light dawn on the Indian subcontinent around 563 B.C., infused peace into a disheartened nation with his profound teachings. He condemned all the dogma associated with erstwhile orthodox Vedic religion. His doctrine of momentariness or Ksanika Vada, which was part of his rational teachings, can be considered as Buddhist theory of Phenomenal Dialectic. With this doctrine, Buddha ruled out the eternality of the soul and all the logics that were related to the permanency in the Vedic religion. Buddha emphatically said all the things that have origination must perish and the world is a becoming, it is Bhavarup. Everything in this world is merely a conglomeration of perishable qualities. Everything is momentary. This world is determined by the principle of dependent origination and animals, Gods, plants, things, bodies, forms, substances…all are perishable. Everything has a beginning, existence and extinction. This was the middle path posited by Buddha, a way between the views of absolute existence and absolute nihilism. This teaching of Buddha had helped the restoration of rational thinking in the erstwhile dispirited nation.  Buddha and Heraclitus, both of them didn’t use the term Dialectics. However, this doesn’t stop their theories to be qualified as foundations of dialectical method in the East and the West respectively.

Dialectics of Plato

The term has been connected with Plato in the history of philosophy as a method of discussion. Before going into the details of Plato’s Dialectic Method, it is important to know how the concept of natural philosophy, during the time of Heraclitus, had transformed into a method of discussion.  August Thalheimer, a German Marxist thinker, theorised that development of a slave labour system had dragged the Greek city state into wars for a perennial supply of slaves, hindered technical progress and also gave rise to parasitic behaviour among its free citizens. (August Thalheimer, Introduction to Dialectical Materialism - The Marxist World-View, Greek Idealism) As a result, scientific growth had stopped and questions of natural philosophy had lost relevance, instead questions related to human conduct gained prominence.

Plato developed Dialectic Method as an art of discussion, through which participants try to arrive at truth, by exchange of logical arguments. British philosopher Simon Blackburn defined Plato’s Dialectic Method as “The process of eliciting the truth by means of questions aimed at opening out what is already implicitly known, or at exposing the contradictions and muddles of an opponent’s position” (Simon Blackburn, Plato’s Republic – A Biography, p. 104).  Plato had popularized this method by making extensive use of this method in his works. The dialectic dialogue is also known as Socratic Method or Socratic Irony, in which Socrates attempts to examine someone's beliefs and argues by cross-examining his opponent’s claims and premises in order to point out inconsistency among them in order to take them nearer to the truth.

According to Ryan Patrick Canney, Plato’s dialectical method requires the following: 1) Participation and the appearance of equal status among those involved, 2) Starting the dialogue with commonly held views and ideas, 3) Dialogue that leads to critical reflection amongst the participants, and 4) Connection of ideas brought up in discussion. (Ryan Patrick Canney, The Dialectic Today: Critically Interrogating the Socratic Method for Contemporary Use).  Plato’s method of discussion is different from debate, in which two people try to disprove each other and also rhetoric, which aims at winning over others in an argument by mastering argumentation techniques but not the facts about the subject matter. In his Gorgias, Socrates gets Gorgias, a rhetorician, to agree that a rhetorician is actually more convincing in front of an ignorant audience than an expert, because mastery of the tools of persuasion gives a man more convincingness than knowledge of subject matter. Gorgias concedes this criticism and asserts that it is an advantage of rhetoric that a man can be considered above specialists without having to learn anything of substance. Socrates calls rhetoric a form of flattery and compares it to pastry baking and cosmetic beautification. He says that rhetoric is to politics what pastry baking is to medicine, and what cosmetics are to gymnastics. All of these activities are aimed at surface adornment, an imitation of what is really good. (Plato, Gorgias) Plato had provided solid foundations for quite a lot of philosophical ideas with his irrefutable arguments that formed the basis for Western philosophy. Indeed, he had outlined the important questions that formed the subject matter for philosophers for the next 1500 years.

Dialectical Method of Aristotle

Aristotle worked on Dialectics at length in his Topics. He divided the possible kinds of reasonings in an argument or discussion into four kinds, of which dialectical proposition is the second one: Demonstrations, which are based on premises that are primary and true: Dialectical propositions, which have commonly held opinions as their premises; Contentious, which have premises those seem to be common held, but are really not; Mis-reasonings, which are based on the premises that are neither true nor primary. He further defined dialectical proposition as some thing that examines the endoxos i.e. commonly held beliefs. However, every proposition and every problem can not be set down as dialectical. The endoxos must not be the view which no one holds or which is obvious to everyone. If nobody holds a particular view, any reasoning would not be possible and if it is obvious to everyone, then there is no place for doubt. The dialectical propositions are a kind of assertion and not demonstrations.

Given the picture of dialectical proposition, the dialectical art comprises of two elements: a method for discovering premises from which a given conclusion follows, a method for determining which premises a given participator will be likely to concede.  A dialectical problem is a subject of inquiry that contributes either to choice and avoidance, or to truth and knowledge, and that either by itself or in tandem with some other fact helps in the solution of some other such problem. Dialectical reasoning, according to Aristotle, is useful in a). intellectual training, b). casual encounters and c). the philosophical sciences. He said, “It (dialectical reasoning) is useful as training is obvious on the face of it. The possession of a plan of inquiry will enable us more easily to argue about the subject proposed. For purposes of casual encounters, it is useful because when we have counted the opinions held by most people, we shall meet them on the ground not of other people's convictions but of their own, while we shift the ground of any argument that they appear to us to state unsoundly.” (Aristotle, Topics, X)

“For the study of the philosophical sciences it is useful, because the ability to raise searching difficulties on both sides of a subject will make us detect more easily the truth and error about the several points that arise. It has a further use in relation to the ultimate bases of the principles used in the several sciences. For it is impossible to discuss them at all from the principles proper to the particular science in hand, seeing that the principles are the prius of everything else: it is through the opinions generally held on the particular points that these have to be discussed, and this task belongs properly, or most appropriately, to dialectic: for dialectic is a process of criticism wherein lies the path to the principles of all inquiries.” (Ibid.) Aristotle’s analysis of Dialectics, as part of his exploration of Logic, provided a beginning for analytical examination of the method.

1.4       DIALECTICS IN MODERN PHILOSOPHY

Hegelian Dialectics

After Greek philosophers, it was German idealist thinkers who worked on Dialectic method in an apperceptive fashion. While Kant used dialectics as a principle of self-contradiction, Fichte made use of it to explain his evolution of self-consciousness and for the first time used the thesis-antithesis-synthesis triode. Schelling fully developed dialectics as a method that explains the phenomenon of nature and utilised the triadic method. Based on Schelling, it was Hegel who worked out a complete system of the world through speculative reasoning. He wanted to have the fullest knowledge of past, present and future through this system. Hegel’s system has many similarities with that of Adi Sankara, whose doctrine of Brahman also captures the eternal knowledge.   

 Hegel argues that "what is rational is real and what is real is rational." This must be understood in terms of Hegel's further claim that the Absolute must ultimately be regarded as pure Thought, or Spirit, or Mind, in the process of self-development. According to Hegel’s system, beginning of history happens with the beginning of the primitive Spirit or Absolute Being. This Spirit was so poor and simple that when it had faced its anti-thesis i.e. nothingness and in a perennial and conflictual movement, the synthesis is produced i.e. Becoming. In an unlimited series of phenomena, the Being constructs itself continuously and becomes more conscious about itself. The perennial movement between the opposites i.e. the Being and non-Being make self-construction and self-revelation possible. This reality, or the total developmental process of everything that is, he referred to as Absolute Spirit. According to Hegel, the task of philosophy is to chart the development of Absolute Spirit. This involves (1) making clear the internal rational structure of the Absolute; (2) demonstrating the manner in which the Absolute manifests itself in nature and human history; and (3) explicating the teleological nature of the Absolute, that is, showing the end or purpose toward which the Absolute is directed. Being, in other words, is characterized in its development by three stages: being (thesis), non-being (antithesis), becoming (synthesis). It is in this that Hegel's system of triads consists. This higher entity, at the same time it becomes being, is lacerated, so to speak, by its opposite (i.e., by non-being), and tends to affirm itself in a still higher entity, and so on ad infinitum. This activity of building and of tearing itself apart, with the intention of rebuilding itself ad infinitum, is the life of Being.

Another important feature of the primordial Being is rationality. It was essentially a perfect, rational thought that confirms the development of Being in the dialectic process that confirms the series of phenomena. This thesis of the World as nothing but ‘Becoming’ helped Hegel to challenge the Aristotlian logic. According to Aristotle, the principle of identity could be formulated because the concept of being is always the same -- A is equal to A, and A cannot be its negation (non-A) at the same time and in the same respect. For Hegel, this logic is faulty because it misinterprets reality. For him reality is never identical with itself, but at every moment changes, passing from what it is to what it is not. Contradiction, therefore, is the life of concrete being. The progress of history happened through a logical process of developing in accordance with the law of coincidence of opposites. This process depends upon a fundamental triad: Idea (Logos), Nature, Spirit. This triad indicates a logical rather than a chronological succession, for the entire process is actuated within the primordial Spirit, in which all is immanent.

Idea or Logos is the system of the pure concept which lay at the foundation of all reality. Nature is the objectivation of the Idea. It is the Idea's becoming other than itself, or its self-extension in time and space. But it is the Universal Spirit which establishes itself in the series of phenomena extended in space and time, with the purpose of developing itself and of gaining consciousness of self. Nature reaches the height of perfection in the human organism, and the human organism attains the peak of perfection in individual consciousness or Subjective Spirit. With the attainment of this supreme stage of perfection there begins the return of nature to the Universal Spirit. Indeed, the Subjective Spirit is the first appearance of the Universal Spirit as rationality and freedom. But in the narrow limits of individuality, the Subjective Spirit can never reach the fullness of rationality and freedom, which is the consummation of the entire process of the Spirit. To realize this ultimate end (the fullness of rationality and freedom), the Subjective Spirit objectivates itself in many super individual forms; i.e., it constructs the ethical world.

The first objectivation is the juridical order or right, which guarantees freedom to all in a measure compatible with the freedom of others. Right can regulate only external conduct. The spirit which aspires to regulate the interior world also, objectivates itself in a higher form, i.e., in morality. Morality concretizes itself:

1. In the family, in which the spirit reveals itself as a union of souls;

2. In civil society, which is a larger and higher community of souls; and, lastly,

3. In the state, the highest revelation that the spirit gives to itself.

The Objective Spirit of the people manifests itself in the State, which is the living God. The living God incarnates Himself now in this, now in that nation, according as the nation realizes more perfectly than any other the ideal of civilization. As the Spirit passes from one nation to another, the chosen people by the Spirit conquers and dominates the others. Although the state is the highest objectivation and manifestation of the Spirit,

Hegel places the Universal or Absolute Spirit over the objective spirit. The Absolute Spirit – which expresses itself through art, religion and philosophy -- fully actuates the consciousness of its divine nature in a reckoning with itself. In art the Spirit apprehends its absolute essence as an idea expressing a sensible object: the beautiful is an idea sensibly concretized, in which the infinite is seen as finite. In religion, on the other hand, there is the unity of the finite with the infinite. The infinite is immanent in the finite, but in a sentimental, imaginative, mythical form. The Hegelian concept, in which the state is the living God and individuals but passing shadows, and in which, moreover, conflict and war are affirmations of the vitality of the state, has been put to the test in the German nation. Needless to say, Hegel's concept of reality is immanentist, pantheistic and atheistic.

Dialectics in Karl Marx

While Hegel talks of resolving contradictions removed from Kant’s pursuit of objective truth, his understanding of dialectic thought remained rooted in the notion of an ideal distinct from reality. Marx in a significant departure from the idealistic dialectics of Hegel embedded the Hegelian triad of affirmation, negation and the negation of negation in a more discrete zone of the socially apparent and the materially manifest. The idea or the concept for Marx was not something that existed beyond social realities, as was Hegel’s wont, but was the direct result of the forces shaping the concepts that underlay social reality. A more direct application of this idea translated into the field of historical materialism, whereby history became a result achieved through the resolution of the contradiction inherent in the hierarchy of social and specifically class, i.e. economic divisions. So for Marx history was a byproduct of the class struggle. The attempt of the proletariat, or the economically marginalized, to correct the prevailing contradiction of their own subordinated existence.  This was a direct application of the discourse of dialectics into the tangible or the real. A thought process that did not make such a move into the realm of pragmatic action would, for Marx, remain an empty ideology. Something that would be philosophising shallowly, akin to mysticism or spirituality, rather than a concrete imperative to action. 

For Marx the demystification of Hegelian Dialectics was predicated upon the principle that the world was “knowable,” the human mind in effect stood at the apex of a rational order which interpreted the dynamism of forces associated with social change and rendered that change with the possibility of interpretation: “To Hegel, the life process of the human brain, i.e. the process of thinking, which, under the name of ‘the idea,’  he even transforms into an independent subject, is the demiurgos of the real world, and the real world is only the external, phenomenal form of ‘the idea.’ With me, on the contrary, the ideal is nothing else than the material world reflected by the human mind, and translated into forms of thought.” (Capital, Volume 1, p.29).

This line of thought is central to Marx’s idea of control that can be exercised over a knowable and material world.  In such a world oppositions of power and authority, divided amongst strata of society that have access to authority and are denied it, are instrumental in initiating moves that would eventually resolve social contradictions premised on class. To iterate an earlier argument, it is such moves working towards a resolution of ideas of control that create history. Anything that exists outside the purview of such a material movement would not classify as history in Marx’s account.

The concept of the Being is an integral part of Hegel’s speculation regarding the process of knowing. The being, which in other words is the thesis, in trying to know and position itself also privileges the non-being or absence or anti-thesis, eventually the union of such an opposition results in a more absolutist version of ‘becoming’ where the spirit of the discourse becomes the synthesis. But for Marx this version of dialectic thought privileging speculation remained at the level of dangerous metaphysics, dangerous because it made the individual in society impotent and incapable of action. Marx replaced the notion of unity within Hegelian dialectics with the idea of struggle. And to present it in a more reductive and perhaps vulgar fashion the struggle of a class of people over another with the ultimate aim of overthrowing one and gaining control over the means of production.  It is at the height of an almost pre ordained logic that Marx declares his methodology of Dialectics to be: “[A] scandal and abomination to bourgeoisdom and its doctrinaire professors, because it includes in its comprehension an affirmative recognition of the existing state of things. At the same time also, the recognition of the negation of that state of its inevitable breaking up; because it regards every historically developed social form as in fluid movement, and therefore takes into account its transient nature not less than its momentary existence; because it lets nothing impose upon it, and is in its essence critical and revolutionary.” (Capital)  

Contradiction lies at the heart of the critique that Marx offers, so also does Hegel, but for Hegel it is the route towards understanding a transcendent notion of being and space of the real occupied by the being. For Marx the contradiction is in a way pejorative and something that needs to be reconciled keeping in mind the demands of a more equitable social order. And it is to satisfy this demand that ‘the critical’ and the platform it provides for conflict and struggle becomes significant. 

Friedrich Engels

Engels and Marx occupy the same range of the Dialectic spectrum. Engels determined three laws of dialectics from his reading of Hegel’s Science of Logic.  He elaborated on these laws in his work Dialectics of Nature: The law of the unity and conflict of opposites, The law of the passage of quantitative changes into qualitative changes, The law of the negation of the negation

The law of unity and conflict emphasizes the idea of struggle central to Marxian dialectics. In such a space the apparent unities of coincidence, identity and equal action are transient and always subordinated to the struggle embodied by the conflict of opposites. The transition of states in the second law finds social resonance in the analysis of demographic changes and the resultant changes in social structure. The third law highlights the contradictory nature of a delimited being and the divisive tendencies innate to the phenomenon that translate into our understanding of the being. 

While Marx believed that Hegel’s dialectic was disrupted by its idealism, and reversed Hegel’s idealistic dialectic from a material position, Engels addressed Marx far more directly. Engels held that Marx’s dialectic is “nothing more than the science of the general laws of motion and development of nature, human society and thought,” where development of nature and society is the foundation on which the development of thought rests. For Engels all of nature itself was the summation of a continuing dialectical process. In Anti-Duhring  he contended that a negation of negation is; “A very simple process which is taking place everywhere and everyday, which any child can understand as soon as it is stripped of the veil of mystery in which it was enveloped by the old idealist philosophy.”

In effect Engels deviates from the far more direct and brutal rationalization of conflict in Marx by tempering the nature of that struggle in a more organic environment. For Engels the state of conflict was a natural phenomenon prevalent in the universe, the upturning of social orders also perhaps a consequence of the consistent impetus for change in the fabric of nature and society. All Nature, from the smallest thing to the biggest, from a grain of sand to the sun, from the protista to man, is in a constant state of coming into being and going out of being, in a constant flux, in a ceaseless state of movement and change. (Dialectics of Nature) 

The building of such momentum manifested itself in the hierarchical inversions highlighted by Marx but also in the words of Engels created a natural state of expectancy that governed the change. In short while the template of struggle is provided by Marx’s position, according to Engel’s the change itself perhaps follows a natural pattern and in a way is anticipated.  Thus a doctrine of development is encompassed by the idea of dialectics that is very different from a conventional approach towards a general concept of development.  A doctrine that talks of progression in terms of the image of spirals rather than something compounded in a linear fashion.

Here progress is not incremental but abrupt, sudden and in many ways apocalyptic. Engels firmly believed along with Marx that qualitative changes that he spoke of in his writings were only possible through such disruptions. What interested Engels’s the most was the process of such instrumental change as evoked in his three conceptual laws/premises that he arrived at after a careful consideration of Hegel’s idealistic dialectic.   What is evident from the evaluation of such concept based cognitive mapping of the ideational being is the negation of the sacred. The emergent pattern then is a complete abjuring of unified terms such as the final or the absolute. This is done for the simple reason that totalizations such as the sacred would permit a social closure whereby the essential contradiction of social divides gain a completely natural sanction, and this is something that a materialistic dialectic espoused by Marx and Engels absolutely seeks to avoid.     

1.5       CRITIQUE OF DIALECTICAL METHOD

Many philosophers have offered critiques of Dialectical Method. One of the general points made is that, in Dialectics, harmony and unity are not emphasized; only tensions, paradoxes and contradictions are highlighted. Critics of Hegel like Arthur Schopenhauer argue that the selection of any antithesis, other than the logical negation of the thesis, is subjective. Then, if the logical negation is used as the antithesis, there is no rigorous way to derive a synthesis. In practice, when an antithesis is selected to suit the user's subjective purpose, the resulting "contradictions" are rhetorical, not logical, and the resulting synthesis not rigorously defensible against a multitude of other possible syntheses. Karl Popper unleashed a famous attack on Hegelian dialectics, in which he held Hegel's thought was to some degree responsible for facilitating the rise of fascism in Europe by encouraging and justifying irrationalism.

Some critics argue, while the dialectic in the sphere of ideas can be defended, the concept as applied to the movement of matter, in the manner of Marx, contradicts the ways of the natural world. Nature is full of examples where growth and development occurs through the dynamic movement of opposites, such as the positive and negative charges that make up an atom, or male and female animals that mate to produce offspring. However, in spite of the critics, it can be said that Dialectical Method retains a central position in philosophy as an important research methodology providing answers to some philosophical questions.  

1.6       LET US SUM UP

In this Unit we tried to have a general understanding of Dialectical Method tracing it from the Greek period to the Modern times. We have rather elaborately seen the various nuances associated with dialectical reasoning in its varied forms. The effort was to capture how Dialectical Method of argument was central to both Western and Indian  philosophical traditions, though in a brief manner. The emphasis was to bring forth the uniqueness of Dialectics which is a open, flexible, unassuming, critical, skeptical and holistic method taking into consideration all aspects of reality through rational dialogue in the  pursuit of truth in its earnestness.

1.7       KEY WORDS

Dialectic: Dialectic is a formal system of reasoning that arrives at the truth by the exchange of logical arguments.

Negation: Negation involves the resolution of a dialectical contradiction which transforms or resolves a thing, situation or process in certain important respects, while also maintaining some similarity or continuity with the previous thing, situation or process in other respects. Example: Capitalism is the negation of feudalism.

Thesis, Anti-Thesis and Synthesis The thesis is an intellectual proposition; Anti-thesis is a reaction to the proposition; the synthesis solves the conflict between the thesis and antithesis by reconciling their common truths, and forming a new proposition.

Quantitative Change and Qualitative Change: It's part of the continuity-discontinuity issue. A quantitative change is a change in numbers. A qualitative change is a change in quality

UNIT 2           RATIONAL METHOD

Contents

2.0       Objectives

2.1       Introduction

2.2       Understanding Rationalism

2.3       Rational Method of Investigation

2.4.      Descartes’ Rational Method

2.5       Leibniz’ Aim of Philosophy

2.6       Spinoza’ Aim of Philosophy

2.7       Let us Sum up

2.8       Key Words

2.9       Further Readings and References

2.0       OBJECTIVES

In order to provide a solid foundation to philosophy one need to adopt a solid and sound method. This unit explore the one of such methods - “rational method”  in the discover of truth. This study on the rational method will enable a student …..

•           To see the immensity of the power of reasoning in philosophizing

•           How reason can lead us to clear and distinct truths

•           Also to value the mathematical tool in the demonstration of truth

2.1       INTRODUCTION

The renaissance began in 12th century in Italy and flourished all over Europe by16th century made sweeping changes in all aspects of life in the west. The awakening of the reflective spirit endowed with a critical mind inspired by the values of the classical world almost redefined the understandings of society, culture, religion, politics, art and literature. Revolt against authority and tradition, intellectual and religious absolutism and collectivism on the one hand and a demand for freedom in thought and action on the other hand were the dominant trends of the period. Perhaps the most important contribution of this period may be the recognition of the dignity, freedom and importance of the human individual. In other words renaissance witnessed the emergence of a new humanism freed from the strong hold of authority and tradition.

The field of intellectual life was also affected by this new trend. Reason took over the place of authority and tradition as the standard or criterion of truth. Truth is now considered as something to be acquired by impartial inquiry than what is decreed by religious authority and revelation. The method of arriving at truth is now changed from contemplation to empirical verification. Consequently an abiding faith in the power of human reason became the fashion of the time. Knowledge then is esteemed for its utility for the practical value too. Philosophy became more rationalistic in the sense that reason became the highest criterion of knowledge leaving behind the supernaturalism of scholasticism. Philosophy became more scientific than a mere servant of Christian theology. Thus the modern thought was generally classified as rationalistic and emperistic as they accept reason or experience respectively as the source and norm of knowledge. In this unit we will deal with the understanding of rationalism as a philosophical system, its method of investigation and finally a detailed study of the method developed by the various rationalist philosophers.

2.2       UNDERSTANDING RATIONALISM

Rationalism derives from the Latin word “Ratio” meaning “Reason".  In Epistemological sense, Rationalism is "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification”. In a more technical term it is a method or a theory "in which the criterion of the truth is not sensory but intellectual and deductive.  Rationalism holds that genuine knowledge cannot come from sense perception or experience but must have its foundation in thought or reason. It makes reason instead of revelation and authority as the standard of knowledge.  To employ reason is to use our individual intellectual abilities to seek evidence for and against potential beliefs. To fail to employ reason is to form beliefs on the basis of such non-rational processes as blind faith, guessing or unthinking obedience to institutional authority. Rationalism gives emphasis on the a priori reason which means knowledge obtained prior to experience. It is universal, necessary and self evident. Hence this theory holds that certain ideas like ideas of causality, infinity and perfect being of God are inborn and highly indubitable. Rationalism is also commonly called as Continental Rationalism, the term ‘continental rationalism’ would traditionally refer to a 17th century philosophical movement begun by Descartes. After Descartes several scientists and philosophers continued his teachings throughout continental Europe and accordingly were titled as Cartesians. A handful of philosophers influenced by Descartes were more original in developing their own views and they are Benedict Spinoza, Nicholas Malebranche and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz..

2.3       RATIONAL METHOD OF INVESTIGATION

Continental rationalists in understanding the origin of knowledge accepted the idea of innate and a priori truths which do not depend on experience, although psychologically perception of them may be on the occasion of an experience. They maintained that we could deduce truths with absolute certainty from our innate ideas, much the way theorems in geometry are deduced from axioms. Mathematical demonstration was seen as the perfect type of demonstrating truth and accordingly mathematical proof became the model for all other kinds of demonstration. For them Mathematics provides a model of clarity, certainty and orderly deduction. The personal elements the subjective factors such as feelings and emotions are eliminated and body of presuppositions the truth of which is assured and built up. Although the empiricist used the same deductive reasoning but they put a greater emphasis on the inductive method following the British country man Francis Bacon.  Thus rational method is basically predicting and explaining behavior based on mathematical reasoning and logic.

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2.4       DESCARTES’ RATIONAL METHOD

Fundamental aim of Descartes was to attain philosophical truths by the use of reason. But what he was seeking was not to discover a multiplicity of isolated truths but to develop a system of true prepositions in which nothing would be presupposed which was not self-evident and indubitable. And the whole edifice should rest on a sure foundation. In one sense Descartes consciously and deliberately broke with the past and did not rely on any previous philosophy. He resolved to rely on his own reason and not on authority. He was against what is conjectural of which he accused the scholastics. Knowledge for him was only certain knowledge. He was determined to attain and work with clear and distinct ideas in contrast to confused ideas and in contrast to terms (scholastics) without any clear meaning. He built his own interconnected system of knowledge, comprising an account of knowledge, metaphysics, physics and other sciences.

This ambition is summarized in one of his last writings as “all philosophy is like a tree, metaphysics is the roots it starts with the intuitively apprehended existence of the finite self and proceeds to establish the criterion of truth, existence of God and the existence of material world. Physics is the trunk of the tree and it depends on metaphysics in the sense physics cannot be considered organic part of science until the ultimate principles of physics have been shown to follow metaphysical principles. Particle sciences which are the branches of the tree will be truly science when their organic dependence on physics or natural philosophy is shown.

For Descartes tree of knowledge was its hierarchical organization. He held firmly to the notion that the interconnected body of knowledge has a particular order. For him knowledge begins in metaphysics and metaphysics begins with the self. From the self we arrive at God and from God we arrive at the full knowledge of mind and body.  Thus he over throws the accumulation of life-long beliefs and use reason alone to establish solid and permanent truths. Truths should confirm to a rational scheme. Ideal philosophy means organically connected system of scientifically established truths. This shows not only systematic arrangement and a proof was his aim but believed in the use of method that would enable the philosopher to discover hitherto unknown truths.

Cartesian Method of Investigation

In his method to attain absolutely certainty and universally acceptable knowledge Descartes wanted a certain and undubitable starting point that even a radical could not shake the edifice of his philosophical method. Expressing perfect confidence in the capacity of human reason to achieve knowledge, Descartes wanted to accept only what is genuinely certain as valid knowledge in his method. In order to do that one must first deliberately renounce all of the firmly held but questionable beliefs previously acquired by experience and education. Thus in his second part of the Discourse on the Method he characterized four simple rules for his rational method. 1) Accept as true only what is indubitable. Never to accept anything as true if one does not have evident knowledge of its truth: that is carefully to avoid precipitate conclusions and preconceptions. 2) One must analyze difficulties into as many simpler parts as possible. 3) One must advance from the simplest and most easily known objects to ascend little by little to knowledge of the most complex. 4) One must ensure that nothing had been omitted it is to make enumerations so complete and reviews so comprehensive. Therefore this Cartesian method means a set of certain and easy rules such that anyone who observes them exactly will never take anything false to be true without any waste of mental effort but by increasing his knowledge step by step, will arrive at a true understanding of all those things which do not surpass his capacity.

Mathematics as the foundation

In order to do this he employs mathematics as the foundational tool. Mathematics must be the guide to clear the confusions and uncertainties of philosophy. He looked at mathematics as mode of clear and dubitable reasoning, because it consists of the use of two mental operations they are Intuition: an immediate knowledge of anything. It is supposed to be direct and impeccable. It is the understanding of self-evident principles about which no doubts are possible. Self-evident principle is anything that does not require any proof to establish itself. Deduction: Is a logical inference from self-evident propositions. A valid conclusion can be arrived by proceeding from generalizations to particular. Therefore Descartes quest for certainty and his looking for mathematics as a model of reasoning was due to the revival of skepticism. Which was one of the aspects of Renaissance Charron’s fideism (he was skeptical of reason – theological truths can never be attained by reason, only by faith) and Montaigne’s  skepticism. It is this that led to set philosophy on a sure basis. This quasi mathematical procedure for the achievement of knowledge is typical of a rational approach. This method is also called as the method of Doubt.

Doubt and Certainty

Descartes insisted that the task of his method is to rid oneself of all prejudices by calling in doubt all that can be doubted. The path even to certainty begins with doubt. The doubting process frees oneself from all preconceived opinions and provides one the easiest route by which the mind may be led away from senses. It is a methodic doubt because he doubts not for the sake of doubting but as a primary stage in the attainment of certainty and for shifting the true from the false. In this way the skeptical doubt prepares the mind for certainty. The first step towards certainty is the discovery of the existence of the self. There is one thing that cannot be doubted. That is the doubt itself which is certain. If doubt or thinking is real than the doubter or thinker is also real. If the thinker is real than the objects whatever comes into his contact are real therefore he come to conclusion “Cogito ergo sum” ‘I am thinking therefore I exist.’ This cogito argument not only derives a proof for his existence but also sought to discover the essence to demonstrate the existence of God and to provide the criterion to guide the mind in its search for truth. Thus this argument is to build the entire world from the thinking self. It is important here that it is not just the mind that is the foundation, but my mind. In this way the starting point of philosophy for him was connected with the rejection of authority.

2.5 LEIBNIZ’S AIM OF PHILOSOPHY

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz a German philosopher, mathematician and logician shared Descartes concern with what he called the improvement of the sciences’ meaning the advancement of knowledge which would render it secure against the possibility of serious doubt and error. Like Descartes he felt that the various sciences and our so called knowledge generally are not properly grounded and lack the certainty and freedom from the possibility of error and so wanted to provide for a foundation for knowledge. As Descartes he too was very much impressed with mathematics. His philosophical method was modeled on mathematics hoping to get a comparable exactness and certainty of our reasoning about reality.

He was critical of his method and procedure of Descartes on a number of counts. Leibniz believed that there are two great principles directing our reasoning.  The principle of contradiction: it is by means which we decide to be false that which involves contradiction and that to be true which is opposed to the false. It states that a thing cannot simultaneously be itself and another and the immediate evidence of sense data.  The principle of sufficient reasoning: According to it if a being exists, it does so because there is a sufficient reason for its existence. It asserts that there is an adequate reason to account for the existence and nature of everything that could conceivable not exist. We may not know all the reasons from its existence. But there should be sufficient reason to be so. It is different from principle of causality and the principle of identity. Eg. What is the sufficient reasoning as to why I am a man not a table? It is because I am a human substance. This principle affirms that everything that exists is accounted for in a rationalistic and orderly world.

From these principles Leibniz contends that the rules of common logic may be derived. To avoid all errors it is enough that one sticks to common rules of logic with great constancy and rigour. It is not necessary first to prove that existence and goodness of God which is not possible without these rules anyhow.  Thus for Leibniz there was not only the two principles and indeed something more to start with than Descartes Cogito ergo sum. There are other truths. That is the particular contents of our immediate experience. What is immediately given is not simply that I think but also that I have the particular thoughts or perceptions I do. They do not guarantee that there exists anything independent of them, corresponding to them but they themselves are not subject to doubt. There are as many primary truths of the act as there are immediate perceptions. Therefore what is truth are how will one establish that truth?

Types of truth

In his method he holds that the truth is to be established by combining the simplest and most basic elements of knowledge. The key idea here is the distinction between truth of reasoning and the truths of facts. This is yet another contribution of Leibniz. The truths of reasoning (a priori) are necessary and eternal truths, their opposite is impossible. Their denial can only lead to contradiction. For example: “a triangle had three sides.” They are also analytical that is the predicate of the Truth of Reasoning is already pre-contained in the subject itself. Eg. Two and two is four. Such truths are arrived through analysis and reasoning. The opposite of such truths is indeed false and not possible at all.

Truths of Facts: The truths of fact (a posteriori) are contingent and their opposite is possible. It is not arrived by rational analysis but by experience of the fact. These truths are synthetic that is an external reason is needed to equate the subject and the predicate in their propositions. However the predicates of the TF are also virtually pre-contained in the subject. One who has a vast and extensive knowledge of the subject would be able to know all its contingent possibilities. Thus in his method Leibniz has a rather low opinion of the importance of empirical knowledge. He is much more interested what can be discovered about general nature of things through the use of reason alone. It is this main reliance upon reason as opposed to experiment and his conviction that reason can reveal to us the basic structure of reality despite the limitation applying to empirical knowledge accounts for the traditional designation of Leibniz as rationalist.

2.6       SPINOZA’S AIM OF PHILOSOPHY

Spinoza a Dutch-Jewish philosopher expounded part of Descartes philosophy. In Spinoza’s view the proper order of philosophical argument demands that we should start with that which is ontologically and logically prior, namely with the divine essence or Nature and then proceed by logically deducible stages. In adopting this approach Spinoza separated himself from Descartes. In this endeavor to give a rational explanation of the world speculative metaphysicians have always tended towards the reduction of multiplicity to unity. Explanation in this connection means explanation in terms of causality and so they have tended to reduction of multiplicity to unity. In this sense Spinoza was a metaphysician with the ambitious aim of explaining reality or making the universe intelligible. For him the fundamental philosophical vision was one of unification and synthesis. Man’s happiness consists in attaining the truth. Hence he was concerned with the method of attaining truth and not about the capacity of the mind to know truth. In order to attain truth the mind must get rid of various prejudices that distract us. For example the prejudice that God and nature are not one. Thus in his book Treatise on the correction of the understanding he speaks of three levels of the method of knowing.

Levels of Knowing

Imagination: We can first of all look at things ‘sub specie temporis’ i.e under the aspect of ‘here and now’ time. This takes place when we use imagination. This corresponds approximately to sensation. Our bodies are affected by other bodies passively and through this affection we come to know them. The knowledge of universal ideas also belongs to this level. Through opinion or imagination we neither perceive things in themselves nor infer them from the clear ideas of their causes. We nevertheless rely on ideas of this kind in our common life and this is therefore a useful source of knowledge. Imaginations give us vague, generalized and inadequate information.

Reason: Sometimes we employ reasoning to view reality as separated, isolated and distinct. The object of reason is common notions which are self-evident principles of mathematics and physics. This knowledge is already scientific but it is not the highest cognition because common notions and the conclusions inferred from them are abstract. They do not represent the essence of things in the richness of totality.

Intuition: We also view things in “sub specie aeternitatis” or under the aspect of eternity. We are able to glimpse the essential inter-relatedness of things. This is the most perfect level of knowing. Here we have perception of the individual things in all their fullness.  This is a natural process of knowing which begins with the perception of individual unrelated phenomena, continues through the common notions or abstract principles of thinking and ends in a full and gratifying version of all things in God. On the criterion of truth he supplemented the ideas of Descartes. For Descartes clarity and distinctness was the criterion of truth, instead for Spinoza coherence is another criterion.

The Geometrical Method

Spinoza applied Geometrical method in order to explain the nature of God and world. This method had been propounded by the most prominent mathematician Euclid (300 BC, Alexandria, Egypt). It deals with the laws concerning lines, angles, planes etc. he handled the problem of the world as a problem of geometry. According to him everything is said to follow the first principle or ground of the universe as necessarily as the propositions.  He assumed without questions that it is possible to construct a system of metaphysics that will render it completely intelligible. The method guarantees true conclusions if only the axioms are true and the definitions are correct. Spinoza’s abstract entities also apply to reality as such. Thus we have a real definition an adequate, true or clear and distinct idea of things. Although Spinoza uses the geometrical method in the Ethica ordine Geometrico Demonstrata (Ethics Demonstrated in Geometrical Manner), he does not attempt to justify or even explain it. This has led many readers to view its argument as an intricate and fascinating chain of reasoning from arbitrary premises, which as such never touches reality.

2.7       LET US SUM UP

In order to provide a solid foundation to philosophy one has to adopt a solid and sound method. The rationalists in and through their methods have given a strong foundation for philosophy. Their emphasis on reason as a tool to discover truth brought in a new dimensional change in the western thought, especially the paradigm shift took by Kant in the history of western philosophy. Rational method by using mathematics and its operations of intuition and deduction has eliminated the the personal and subjective factors such as feelings and emotions from of the body of truth. As a result it has given truth a rational scheme in other words it has demonstrated truth is a rational and systematic order.

2.8. KEY WORDS

A priori – truths which do not depend on experience

A posteriori – truths which do depend on experience

UNIT 3           EMPIRICAL METHOD

Contents

           

3.0       Objectives

3.1       Introduction

3.2       Common Features of Philosophical Method

3.3       Empirical Method

3.4       Exposition of Empiricism

3.5       Locke’s Empirical Method

3.6       Berkeley’s Empirical Method

3.7       David Hume’s Empirical Method

3.6       Let us Sum up

3.7       Key Words

3.8       Further Readings and References

3.0       OBJECTIVES

Earlier concepts of the existence of "innate ideas" were the subject of debate between the Continental rationalists and the British empiricists in the 17th century through the late 18th century. John Locke, George Berkeley and David Hume were the primary exponents of empirical method.  The empirical method held that all essential truths about the world were discoverable only by empirical experience i.e sense experience. It is a process of arriving at truth through experiential verification of perceived data. Hence in this method reason was substituted by experience.  The unit exposes the empirical method adopted by these three above mentioned philosophers.

3.1       INTRODUCTION

The term method is derived from a Greek word “methodos” – road to. Etymologically the term refers to the way of doing something, the system of procedure to obtain or reach the end intended. It is a way of procedure from the known to the unknown, from the given starting point to final propositions in a determined field of knowledge. In sciences the use of correct methods is most important in order to make certain that the conclusions are correctly connected with the starting point and the foundation. Every scientific method is the road from the known starting point to a result. And one of the characteristic features of the discipline of philosophy is the existence of method. Philosophical method (or philosophical methodology) is the study of how to do philosophy. So a method of doing philosophy, or a philosophical method, is a systematic or patterned way of answering philosophical questions.

But within them the questions in philosophy are always local in the sense that they carry favor of their own peculiar time and circumstances as a result they do not remain quite the same over a period of time the methods adopted to obtain answers for them have also changed over a period of time. This is especially evident if we look at the evolution of philosophical methods in western philosophy from the speculative, dialectical, empirical, rational method to that of analytical, phenomenological, transcendental method.  This evolution and proliferation of different methods in western philosophy seem to close links with the way science and philosophy began developing in 17th century. When science started to develop quite fast due to the impetus received from the work of Galileo, Newton and others two powerful and influential methods in philosophy – rationalism and empiricism also quickly developed. Of course, there is not just one method that philosophers use to answer philosophical questions. But it is possible to draw some valid generalizations or common features that include while discussing philosophical methods.

3.2       COMMON FEATURES OF PHILOSOPHICAL METHOD

Doubt: Notice doubts that one has about the meaning or justification of some common, everyday belief one has.  Formulate a problem: Formulate the doubts in a philosophical problem, or question. Explain the problem very clearly and carefully.  Offer a solution: Offer a solution to the problem: either something like a philosophical analysis or a philosophical explanation. Argument: Give an argument or several arguments supporting the solution. Dialectic: Present the solution and arguments for criticism by other philosophers, and help them judge their own.

3.3       EMPIRICAL METHOD

Empirical method is generally taken to mean ‘the collection of data’ on which to base a theory or derive a conclusion in science. The term "empirical" was originally used to refer to certain ancient Greek practitioners of medicine who rejected adherence to the dogmatic doctrines of the day, preferring instead to rely on the observation of phenomena as perceived in experience. An empiric is "one who, either in medicine or in other branches of science, relies solely upon observation and experiment.  The empirical method is not sharply defined and is often contrasted with   the experimental method, where data are derived from the systematic manipulation of variables in an experiment. Some of the difficulty in discussing the empirical method is from the ambiguity of the meaning of its linguist root: empiric. According to the Oxford English Dictionary (2nd Edition, 1989), empiric is derived from the ancient Greek for experience, έμπειρία, which is ultimately derived from έυ (in )+ πεἳρα (trial) or experiment. Therefore, empirical data is information that is derived from the trials and errors of experience. In this way, the empirical method is similar to the experimental method. However, an essential difference is that in an experiment the different "trials" are strictly manipulated so that an inference can be made as to causation of the observed change that results. This contrasts with the empirical method of aggregating naturally occurring data. In philosophy too an empirical method refers to a practice of knowledge derived entirely from sense perception or experience. It is a process of attaining truth through experiential verification of perceived data. It is a method which interprets philosophy from a world of experience. But in order to understand the entire process of empirical method one needs to study what first Empiricism is and philosophers who have contributed to this philosophical trend.

3.4       EXPOSITION OF EMPIRICISM

The modern philosophy can be generally classified as rationalistic and empiricistic as they accept reason or experience respectively as the source and norm of knowledge. According to the empiricist view, for any knowledge to be properly inferred or deduced, it is to be gained ultimately from one's sense-based experience. As a historical matter, philosophical empiricism is commonly contrasted with the philosophical school of thought known as rationalism which, in very broad terms, asserts that much knowledge is attributable to reason independently of the senses.

In philosophy empiricism holds the attitude that beliefs are to be accepted and acted upon only if they first have been confirmed by actual experience. This broad definition accords with the derivation of the name from the Greek word ‘Empeiria’, which corresponds to the Latin ‘experientia’ which in turn takes the English meaning ‘experience’. Empiricism is a system of thought which believes that there are no inborn truths and all knowledge springs from sense perception or experience and there is no absolutely certain knowledge without experiential verification of the perceived data. Reason can yield only probable knowledge. Empiricism thus holds that our world of experience is the object of philosophy and all knowledge is ultimately based on experience. Experience so understood has a variety of modes – sensory, aesthetic, moral, religious and so on but empiricist concentrate on sense experience. It goes to an extent of affirming that there is no other knowledge except that which comes from experience. 

There are two kinds of empiricism one is a stronger form and other in a weaker. Such distinction has to do with scope – whether the view takes all knowledge to be based on experience or restricts this claim to knowledge of the physical universe, eluding for example mathematical and/or religious knowledge. Material Empiricism: The stronger form of empiricism is called material empiricism. It holds that the objectively existing outer world is the source of sense experience. It puts forward that the only things that shall be debatable among philosophers shall be things definable in terms drawn from experience. Idealist Empiricism: It is a weaker form which limits experience to the sum total of sensations. Sensation is a kind of physical state occurring as a result of direct influence of the objects on the sense experience. It is also of two types namely External and Internal. External sensation is caused by any one of senses like sense of sight, touch, taste, sound and smell. Internal sensation is caused by reflection or psychical acts of human mind.

Characteristics of Empiricism

According to empiricism human mind at birth is “tabula rasa” or a clean slate. The mind is being compared to a blank writing tablet, white paper and void of all characters. It is in original state a mental blankness. The mind is only potential or inactive before receiving ideas from the senses. Sense experience as source of knowledge. Sensation and reflection the outer and the inner sense experience is the only windows through which the dark chamber of mind comes to be filled with light. Empiricism does not deal with universals. It holds that universal propositions can satisfactorily be explained by particulars. Empiricism denies intuition which enables us to grasp general truths about reality independently of experience as a result it accepts only inductive method which is a process of reasoning from a part to a whole, from particulars to generals, individuals to universals.

3.5       LOCK’S EMPIRICAL METHOD

John lock was suspicious of the view that a thinker could work out by reason alone the truth about the universe. In response to the early-to-mid-17th century Continental Rationalism of Rene Descartes and Baruch Spinoza in the later 17th century John Locke (1632–1704) proposed in  An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689) a very influential view wherein the only knowledge humans can have is a posteriori, i.e., based upon experience.  All materials of human knowledge are derived from experience either of the external world through our senses or of our own mental life through introspection. He established that all our ideas derive from experience that is the way we conceive the world (including ourselves). Therefore,  he set the tone for the empiricist method by affirming the foundational principle of empiricism; “there is nothing in the intellect that was not previously In the senses .” (nihil est in intellectu quod non antea fuerit in sensu). All knowledge of the world must finally rests on human sense experience.

Thus Locke is famously attributed for holding the proposition that the human mind is a Tabula Rasa, a "blank tablet," in Locke's words "white paper," on which the experiences derived from sense impressions as a person's life proceeds are written. Through the combining and compounding of simple sense impressions or ideas (defined as mental contents) into more complex concepts the mind can arrive at sound conclusions. In his empirical method Lock vehemently attacked the doctrine of innate ideas according to him ideas are acquired, learned and obtained from our experience. They are immediate objects of our sensory awareness. They are sensory presentation of physical objects both external and internal. They are concepts that we gain through introspection of our own mental operations like meditation.

There are two sources of our ideas: sensation and reflection. In both cases, a distinction is made between simple and complex ideas. Simple ideas are those that result from pure passivity and consist of a single content. These are obtained through experience alone and are directly known as the contents of actual experience Ex. Colour, hear extensity etc., Lock calls them as primary qualities Those ideas which, come from more than one sense organ  (solidity, motion, number, shape…)and the secondary those ideas that are from one sense organ and are the ways in which facts affect us (colour, smell, sound …). Complex ideas are formed by the synthesis of two or more simple ideas. Here the mind is active.   Mind has the power to repeat, compare, compound the simple ideas in endless variety and thus make complex ideas. This process of compounding and comparing are the operations of the mind. The number of ideas formed by compounding and comparing is almost infinite but they can be classified into Modes themselves, substance and relation.

Modes: Modes are the complex ideas that cannot exist by themselves they are represented by others they are simple modes and Mixed modes,. The former same simple ideas without any mixture of any other whereas the later is components of simply ideas of various kinds put together to make a complex one. Substance: The existence of modes presupposes that of substance. It is the substratum as the cause for the unity of modes. Relation: Here mind gets certain ideas of relation by comparing one thing with another. The idea of cause and effect. Thus his empirical method establishes the hold that the mind is at first a blank tablet, a passive receptor of its experience. The mind possesses innate powers but not innate ideas as cognition begins only with sensation.

3.6       BERKELEY’S EMPERICAL METHOD

One of the aims of Berkeley’s philosophy is to attack scepticism and thereby to defend common sense and to attack atheism and thereby to defend religion.  Against them he held that the reality of the physical world is essentially spiritual for it manifests the activity of spirit and goodness of God’s will. Mind or spirit is the only substance and that it is God who produces sensations or ideas in our mind. According to him secondary qualities are not objective. They change and are not perceived in exactly the same way by everyone.  Therefore they are more in the mind than of the things.

As a result his empirical method is viewed by many as having some idealistic tenants as it teaches that reality consists of spirits and their ideas only.  This is known as immanent idealism. According to this doctrine human mind can possess or acquire the knowledge of their own experiences. However he established this idealistic conclusion as the implication of his famous maxim “esse est percepi.” Since there is nothing as an objective material substance it follows that for material things to be is to be perceived. Esse is act of being or literally to be and its percipi is nothing but to be perceived. It is not possible that they have and existence out of the minds or thinking things which perceive them.  His method implies that our thoughts, passions, pictures of imagination do not exist outside the mind, they are in the mind and their existence consists in their being perceived or known by the mind. Objects exist in so far s they are perceive. In other words to be is to be perceived. The objects are existing because the finite minds perceive them. Even if the finite minds do not perceive the objects still they exist because an ever vigilant spectator perceives them all through. Such an ever vigilant spectator is none other than God (infinite mind or spirit). In short Berkeley points out all mental representations of supposed material substance are finally ideas in the mind therefore the existence of a material world external to the mind is unwarranted assumption.  To do does not mean to be a material substance rather to be means to be perceived by mind.

3.7       DAVID HUME’S EMPIRICAL METHOD (1711–1776)

It was his great desire to establish a science of human nature. After all every science has to do with human nature in some way or the other, whether it is logic, mathematic etc. Man and it is he who ultimately decides what is true and what is false in these disciplines. Thus it is evident that human nature is the capital or centre of the various sciences and it should therefore serve as their focal point.  Hume’s aim was then to explain the principles of human nature so that all the various disciplines might be able to build upon the solid foundation.  In order to do that he advocated experimental method to establish this science. This method is based on observation and experience. We must make a close and accurate observation of man’s psychological processes and moral behavior and try to separate out from these the various laws according to which man works – just as is done in the natural science. Thus rather than relying on supposed intellectual intuitions of the essences of the human mind through introspection, one shall make use of the more scientifically solid procedure of induction.  Thus his view is empirical in the sense that our knowledge has its source in experience.

He argues that all knowledge derives from sense experience. In particular, he divided all of human knowledge into two categories: relations of fideas and matters of fact. Mathematical and logical propositions (e.g. "that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two sides") are examples of the first, while propositions involving some contigent observation of the world (e.g. "the sun rises in the East") are examples of the second. All of people's "ideas", in turn, are derived from their "impressions". There are two types of impressions outward impressions and inward impressions.  From such impressions all our knowledge is derived.  For Hume, an "impression" corresponds roughly with what we call a sensation. To remember or to imagine such impressions is to have an "idea". Ideas are therefore the faint copies of sensations. Thus according to Hume there is no absolute or certain knowledge of matters of fact. Our knowledge never reaches absolute certainty. We base our conclusion on experience. As a simple instance posed by Hume, we cannot know with certainty by inductive reasoning that the sun will continue to rise in the East, but instead come to expect it to do so because it has repeatedly done so in the past.  Thus David Hume drove the empiricist method to its logical end making use of Berkeley’s insight at the same time turning towards modern secular skepticism. As an empiricist who grounded all human knowledge in sense experience, still Hume disagreed with Locke’s representative perception and Berkeley’s idealistic solution. Human experience is indeed of the phenomenal only and there is no way to ascertain what is beyond it.

3.8       LET US SUM UP

Empirical method paved way of very practical basis for philosophy. It said pure rationality or making use of reason as the only tool of knowledge will led philosophy to a baseless ground. Therefore, one needs to start from the given form the sense perception or experience. Out mind cannot act, reason cannot perform its function unless something is carried on to it in and through the sense experiences. Truth or discovery of truth is basically through the a posteriori. Though the empirical method has its own drawbacks still it served a valid basis for demonstration of truth.

3.9       KEY WORDS

Tabula Rasa – word used by Locke to refer to the emptiness of the mind before experience

Innate  ideas – refers to the inborn ideas

                                   

UNIT 4           CRITICAL METHOD

Contents

4.0       Objectives

4.1       Introduction

4.2       Basic Features of Critical Theory

4.3       On Instrumental Reason

4.4       Conception of Society

4.5       Human History as Dialectic of Enlightenment

4.6       Subtantive Reason

4.7       Habermasian Critical Theory

4.8       Habermas’ Theory of Soceity

4.9       Habermas’ Critique of Scientism

4.10     Theory of Communicative Action

4.11     Discourse Ethics of Habermas

4.12     Let us Sum up

4.13     Key Words

4.14     Further Readings and References

           

4.0       OBJECTIVES

•           To introduce a method of philosophizing that was prevalent in the twentieth century

•           To familiarize the students to the world of critical thinking, social critique and ideological structuring

•           To have a overall picture of Critical theory developed and promoted by Frankfort school of philosophy which has a tremendous impact in the continental philosophy of our times.

4.1       INTRODUCTION

Critical Method is the critical theorist approach to the study of society. As a theory, it was developed between 1930-1970 by ‘Frankfurt school’ group of theorists and philosophers like Max Horkheimer, Theodor Wiesengrund Adorno, Herbert Marcuse and Hebermas. It begins by critiquing the modern Western societies that became closed and totalitarian societies where all individual freedom and autonomy were at stake. As a result of the capitalist mode of production, they believed early, that the societies turn into totalitarian. Later they focused on the role of science and technology in modern society, and the ‘instrumental’ conception of reason.  This conception denies the possibility of inherent rational ends of human action and affirms reason as exclusive choice of effective instruments for achieving arbitrary ends. If ‘instrumental rationality’ is not subordinated to a more encompassing notion of rationality, it would bring in disastrous consequences. Critical theorists reflected on the impossibility of leading a good life in the contemporary world. Critical method is a form of cultural criticism and more a theoretical commitment than action for radical social change.

4.2       BASIC FEATURES OF CRITICAL THEORY

Many critics and intellectuals in Frankfurt School adapt Marxism to the theoretical and political needs of their time. The distinguishing feature of their approach is their theoretical orientation in social sciences for a critical theory of society. Method of the Critical theorists was to offer an internal or immanent criticism in form of resistance to the contemporary society.  For them, every society claims to have substantive rationality and to allow its members to lead a good life. Critical method takes such claim as a standard for criticism. Critical theory method exposes such societies that fail to live up to their own claims. Understanding of good life from the beliefs, cultural artefacts and forms of experience present in the society is analysed and criticised in critical method. This serves as a basis for internal criticism. However, they find in the contemporary society a particular difficulty of finding these traditional substantive conceptions of the good life.  These have been replaced by a justification that modern society needs no legitimation beyond its actual efficient functioning and to its ‘instrumental’ rationality. Hence ‘instrumental rationality’ itself becomes a major target for critical theory. (Geuss 1998)

Critical theory began with a social theory guided by an interest in the normative goal of human emancipation. They were skeptical of the enlightenment assumption of scientific and technological progress as an unproblematic human good. Empirical science was based on ‘instrumental rationality,’ which is inherently manipulative. It has brought in disastrous social and moral consequences.

They rejected a commonly held view of a ‘theory’ as a set of formally specified and interconnected general propositions which is used for successful explanation and prediction of the phenomena. This conception is extremely misleading.  It takes away the social context in which theory arose, tested and applied. Without the context theories are not fully comprehensible.  For the critical theorists, the term ‘theory’ designates a form of social activity. Human societies are engaged in a constant process of assimilating nature through labour in order to reproduce themselves; they develop forms of cognitive activity in order to make this self-reproduction more secure and more efficient. Cognitive activity is ‘traditional theory,’ from which the so called scientific theories are derived. Such cognitive activity not only directed at reproducing society but also at changing the existing society radically. (Geuss 1998)

4.3       ON INSTRUMENTAL REASON

‘Reason’ was objective in ancient world and was thought to refer to a structure o order inherent in reality. Human beings were thought to have a subjective faculty to perceive and respond to that objective structure of the world. It was used to determine goals of humans.

In the post-Enlightenment world the ‘objective’ conception of reason becomes increasingly implausible. Reason comes to be conceived as essentially a subjective ability to find efficient means to arbitrarily given ends. Reason becomes subjective, formal and instrumental. It is identified with the kind of reason used in natural science. Scientific reason, obtained from the instrumental understanding reason, is used to manipulate the world towards human ends. Reason becomes a guide to life only in a very limited sense. But reason goes beyond those limits and retains its internal and immanent critical character. (Geuss 1998)

4.4       CONCEPTION OF SOCIETY

Positivists held that the human societies are just bundles of separates facts, events and institutions. Social facts and institutions are what they are objectively. The concepts of society are purely descriptive and defined in terms of observable properties. These concepts are just tools that humans can define in whatever way seems convenient. Critical theorists totally reject all these understanding of society. For them, every society is a ‘totality’ in which each feature is essentially connected with all others. Social reality is partly constituted by forms of belief, understanding and evaluation. The facts and institutions are not objective but inherently oriented towards the realization of specified conception of the good life. As each society has an objective concept of itself as an ideal form of itself, every institution in it is to be evaluated in relation to that concept towards the realization of the good life. To discover the concept is a very complex, constructive, theoretical activity. The method of critical theory is to elicit the concept of a given institution in a given society, formulate it and confront the actual reality of the institution with this ideal concept. If there are discrepancies, it would be exposed and analysed. Such method is called internal or immanent criticism. Adorno says that one cannot extract from reason the image of a good society as reason cannot describe utopia.

4.5       HUMAN HISTORY AS DIALECTIC OF ENLIGHTENMENT

For Horkheimer and Adorno, human history is a dialectic of ‘enlightenment’ on the one hand and ‘myth/barbarism’ on the other. ‘Enlightenment’ is a certain theory, a specification of goals for society, a set of views about individual morality the nature of knowledge, rationality and so on. It is also the actual state of society resulting from the above. ‘Myth’ is ‘barbarism’ opposed to ‘enlightenment’. Enlightenment as a theory has commitment to certain ideals like autonomy, individuality, human happiness. Genuine knowledge, according to it, is knowledge that is objectifying, identifying and inherently technologically efficacious. Increase in such genuine knowledge in a society would lead to realization of ideals. Nothing is taken on faith or authority or tradition.

Critical theorist claim that all formulations of enlightenment as seen in the previous paragraph, is false. Enlightenment is not utterly and radically different from myth. The relation between myth and enlightenment is dialectical.  Both have a common origin as reactions to the same phenomenon: primeval terror, to deal with fear of what is unknown. Myth is a mimetic reaction by making ourselves like that which we fear, by identifying with it. It is an attempt to do away with its primitive.  The other way of reacting to fear is by separating it fully from the self and subjecting it to have control over it.  The latter becomes enlightenment. In myth we make ourselves like the other; in enlightenment we try to make the other like our category by subsuming it. Myths are only historically superseded forms of enlightenment. Moreover, myth and enlightenment are not given absolutely once and for all, but is historically relative.

Enlightenment has its own negative impact on humanity with its instrumentally manipulative attitude in terms of relation between human and nature and with fellow human beings. The effective instrumental control led to repress the spontaneity, which is human,’s capacity for happiness. Modern subjectivity in which self-preservation is ensured at the cost of happiness, is the best example as a result of enlightenment. Enlightenment has an inherent tendency to destroy itself. The ideals like autonomy, individuality and so on are not exempt from the demands of the principle of universal criticism. The increase in technological control over the world and the spread of scientific knowledge has not made people more autonomous, more highly individuated or happier. Finally, enlightenment is potentially totalitarian and has an inherent tendency to absolutize itself. Therefore, critical theorists have the task of enlightening the enlightenment itself, by analyzing its inherent tendency towards totalitarianism, by saving its ideals and by preventing it from turning  itself into a form of myth and barbarism.

4.6       SUBSTANTIVE REASON

Adorno gave an account of a thinking that is a form of substantive reason. It is a kind of thinking constitutive of his critical theory.  For enlightened reason some false beliefs are subjective projections. The medium of those projections like senses, social practices and history, are systematic sources of error. So for true knowledge the only condition is complete independence from these mediums. The autonomy of reason and meaning-independence of concepts is explicitly identified with the spontaneity of the ‘transcendental’ subject. This subject and the philosophical concept of system from it are driven by self-preservation due to both fear and rage against their objects. Adorno appropriates this conception of idealism as rationalized rage which is directed at anything that refuses to fit or non-identical with the demands of autonomous reason. This autonomy of reason is secured through the meaning-independence of concepts from concrete experience and its mediums. The particulars and contingents are incommensurable with this reason. Adorno tries for the ‘rescue’ of nonidentity - the thing in itself in its concrete, historically mediated sensuous particularity by the use of dialectic.

We usually subsume particulars and individuals under generality. Asserting of identity between the two individuals and between each individual and the concept is taken for granted in every day thinking and generally in science too. This Adorno calls as ‘identity thinking,’ which is not true as in every individual there is a difference.  ‘Identity thinking’ in a way crushes or suppresses difference. For instance, X is a cow and ‘Y’ is another cow. We subsume these two particulars as a general concept of ‘cow,’ and the third one ‘Z’ is also linked to this concept of ‘cow.’  By engaging ‘identity thinking’ we tacitly try to make these three animals identical. In fact what is there is that there are three particular animals which are different from one another.  Hence, it overlooks the differences. Critical theory tries to resist such identity tactics and to remain aware of ‘non-identity.’ There are instances where any given two are not identical with the concept that is already made of subsuming one to the other. 

Adorno demonstrated that the rationalized concept of an object does not exhaust the thing conceived. The sensory images and other mediums that are stripped away in the attainment of autonomy are the necessary mediations through which knowing subjects come into relation to objects known. Such a project of Adorno is called ‘Negative dialectics’ which continually points out the concrete differences. It becomes a kind of cognition of the non-identical and it goes on back and forth.  It would not stop in some positive or more adequate concept but a continual negative dialectics. In applying this critical method in philosophical writing, Adorno even rejected the usual standards of clarity and communicability which he feared as forms of repression. It prevents, according to him the novel thoughts and critical ideas from being ‘thoughts.’ Hence, we find that he adopted an elusive style in writing and claimed that his philosophy could not be summarized.

In summary, the critical theory of Horkheimer and Adorno maintained capitalism, enlightenment, scientific era brought in mangy disadvantages and suffering to humanity in the modern period. No doubt they brought in various changes. Nevertheless, they led people to have guilt, inadequacy and progressive political change contributing to a new barbarism. As Adorno calls, they brought in nothing but a ‘real hell.’ From critiquing the impact of enlightenment movement their concern was to expose the nexus of rationality and social actuality. The ulterior dominating attitude of the humans upon nature underlies the project of instrumental reason. Critical theory exposed the rise and domination of instrumental reason while examining the philosophy of the Enlightenment. By doing so, they hoped for a positive and emancipatory notion of enlightenment. Their method in critical theory was to release humanity from the entanglement and domination of philosophy of instrumental reasoning which hailed enlightenment. The critical method is directed at a particular society that stunts the possible realization of the good life. It is inherently negative, and it depends on a conception of substantive reason. Critical method paves a way for the play of free, spontaneous, human subjectivity in an increasingly regimented world. It remained as part of the ‘self consciousness of a revolutionary process of social change.’

4.7       HABERMASIAN CRITICAL THEORY

Critical theory took a turn to more generalized critique of instrumental rationality which finally culminated in Adorno’s “negative dialectics.” For Habermas, with Horkheimer and Adorno, the critical theory had reached its dead end. He sketched out a critical theory of modernity that accounted for its pathology. He suggested a re-orientation of modernity rather than abandoning the project of enlightenment. He proposed a shift of paradigm for critical theory away from the philosophy of consciousness.

He had his interest in developing the concept of rationality, which is beyond the individualistic and subjectivist premises of modernity. He shared with other critical theorists that enlightenment in the form of instrumental rationality became more a source of enslavement means than a means of liberation. By his investigation of instrumental rationality that dominated the modern thought, Habermas examined the loss of significance of the epistemic subject and the capacity for reflection by the subject on his or her activities. In the present effort of making rationality for emancipation, we need to counter this tendency and re affirm the necessity of self reflection for self-understanding.

Critical theory of society for Habermas is inherent in the very structure of social action and language. If in any communicative situation a consensus is established under coercion it is an instance of systematically distorted communication. In proposing for the contemporary formation of ideology and the process of emanciapation, Habermas advocates the transcendence of such systems of distorted communication. Here again, what is required is engagement in critical reflection and criticism where domination is exposed.

4.8       HABERMAS’ THEORY OF SOCIETY

Habermas tried to develop a theory of society with a practical intention. His concern was to offer a systematic and theoretical account of the relation between theory and practice in all social sciences. By doing this he intended to challenge the domination of scientism. He reflected on the nature of cognition, the structure of social inquiry and the normative basis of socio-cultural aspects of the society. He wanted to developed the theory of society with practical intention.  He was critical of the developments and changes in the capitalist and socialist societies in the twentieth century history that raised lots of doubt about the validity of Marxian analysis and theory.  It also posed a major concern about the traditional social thoughts and values perpetuated by many traditions, as they seemed to be bearing no impact on contemporary society.  It called for an assessment and reformulation so as to be relevant today. The developments through scientific revolution and enlightenment are juxtaposed with the developments in the notion of freedom, justice, happiness and self-realization. The Western society has witnessed rather the rise of nihilism and anti-modernism threatening the project of modernity and enlightenment.  It paved a way also to dogmatism and superstition, fragmentation and discontinuity with loss of meaning, as reactionary response to modernity.  According to him, the growth of rationalization has curtailed the freedom and self-determination of human being. Technological progress brought in both blessings and difficulties.  One cannot think of abandoning the achievements of modernity. One needs to have a careful analysis of the outcome of the progress of modernity. Critical theory, for Habermas had real potential to overcome domination and repression and to further the process of human emancipation. It is the distinguishing factor for Critical method from traditional social theory. It is necessary, therefore according to him to undertake the task of a scientific understanding of the dynamics of the society. One has to appropriate the developments in the social sciences and integrate them into a critical social science. He worked towards the notion of just and emancipated society.

4.9       HABERMAS’ CRITIQUE OF SCIENTISM

Habermas attempted to construct an alternative to the technological determinism. The technocratic consciousness in the level social theory has made people to have a tendency to define practical problems as technical issues. Such technocracy justifies a particular class interest in domination and does not disclose the fundamental interests of humankind. It threatens an essential aspect of human life and affects the very structure of human interests. In his systematic critique of positivism and scientism Habermas says that positivism insists that only the sciences constitute genuine knowledge and believes that science does not need any further critical analysis. It is a mere ‘scientific self-misunderstanding,’ which Habermas challenges. He attempts to secure an independent basis for critique that all forms of knowledge are rooted in fundamental human interests, namely ‘anthropologically deep-seated cognitive interests.  These interests are vivid as technical interest in natural sciences, as practical interest in historical-hermeneutic sciences and as emancipatory interest in critical sciences. “The human interest in autonomy and responsibility is not mere fancy, for it can be apprehended a priori. What raises us out of nature is the only thing whose nature we can know: language’ (1968: 314).

For Habermas the growth of technocracy was not inevitable but the result of a failure to preserve the classical distinction between theory and practice, and between practical wisdom and technical skill. He traced this loss of distinction in modern political theories of Hobbes to Hegel as well as of Marx.  Marxian concept of praxis blurred the distinction between labour and modes of social interaction. Habermas argues that the end of alienated labour does not alone ensure social emancipation. (Baynes 1998)

For Habermas, knowledge is historically rooted and interest bound. Human beings are both toolmaking and language-using animals. They had to produce from nature what is needed for their existence. It was done by manipulation and controlof of objects and necessarilly communicated with each other through the use of intersubjectively understood symbols of language. Humankind has an interest in the creation of knowledge to control objectified processes and to maintain communication. This is a basis of interests  that human beings had to organize their experience in terms of a priori interests. There is also an interest in reason, in the human capacity to be self-reflective and self-determining, to act rationally. It results in to generation of knowledge enhancing autonomy and responsibility. It is an emancipatory interest. His theory of cognitive interests elaborates the relationship of knowledge to human activity.

Further for examining the distinction between processes of constitution and justification, he developed the theory of communicative competence. All speech is oriented to the idea of a genuine consensus which involves a nomative dimension.  This is formalized and attained in an ideal speech situation, where consensus becomes a rational consensus and the ultimate criterion of truth. Here the very structure of speech is held to involve the anticipation of a form of life in which truth, freedom and justice are possible.

4.10     THEORY OF COMMUNICATIVE ACTION

The Theory of Communicative Action (1981) is Habermas’ magnum opus. It is a major contribution to social theory with reflections on the basic concepts of social theory along with observations on the methodology of the social sciences, hypotheses about modernization as a process of societal rationalization. Habermas does not see social rationalization as a process that culminates in the loss of meaning and freedom in the world, but as potential for societal learning and human emancipation.  He makes a distinction between communicative action and purposive-rational actions. The former is ‘content-oriented,’ whereas the latter is ‘success-oriented,’ and goal oriented. The latter instrumental actions are appraised from the standpoint of efficiency with following the technical rules. They are strategic actions aiming at influencing others for the purpose of achieving some end. Communicative action constitutes an independent and distinct type of social action. The goal is not to influence others but to reach an agreement or mutual understanding about something in the world. The goal of the agent is subordinated to the goal of achieving a mutually cooperative process of interpretation of the life-worldly situation. The individuals with communicative action aim at understanding by relating their interpretations by three basic types of speech acts: constative, regulative and expressive. (1981, vol. I: 319-). Habermas forms it as communicative rationality as it tries to criticize its own validity claims.

By communicative rationality Habermas does not see society as sort of large-scale debating club. The agents’ interpretations are taken for granted and form the background of knowledge and practices which is called the life-world. Social integration is achieved in this way. Habermas’ distinction between society as life-world and society as system is a unique feature in critical method. The society is an outcome of process of rationalization and societal differentiation. Habermas emphasizes the potential for emancipation through his theory of communicative action. Social pathologies are not just because of rationalization but rather from a one-sided process displacing modes of integration based on communicative reason with that of the market and administrative state’s functional rationality. This is ‘colonization of the life-world.’ (Baynes 1998)

4.11     DISCOURSE ETHICS OF HABERMAS

Discourse ethics is communicative ethics. Habermas develops this as an important corollary of theory of communicative action.  This ethics is a formulation of a post-conventional moral theory and an alternative to utilitarianism and Kantian ethics. Discourse ethics is centered around the basic idea of principle of universalizability that functions as a rule testing the legitimacy of norms. The principle is as Habermas puts it, “Every valid norm must satisfy the condition that all affected can accept the consequences and the side effects its general observance can be anticipated to have for the satisfaction of everyone’s interests (and these consequences are preferred to those of known alternative possibilities).” (Habermas 1983: 65)

This principle is derived from the general pragmatic presuppositions of communication and argumentation. In every commincation the speakers have validity claims with ideal speech situations. The principle of universalizability is an attempt to formulate counterfactual ideal. Accordingly, the norms or maxims of action are only morally legitimate if, when contested, they could be justified in a moral-practical discourse.

Discourse ethics does not presuppose substantive moral content beyond the idea of practical reason. It specifies a formal procedure which any norm must satisfy if it is to be morally acceptable. It supposes an independent order of moral facts. Discourse ethics is a deontological moral theory as it assumes the priority of the right over the good. For Habermas morality consists not just of categorical imperatives but of obligations in terms of communicative action. The valid norms are morally binding as there is an intimate connection with processes of social interaction and communication. (1983: 109).

Habermasian ethics differs from Kantian ethics as it breaks the Kantian two-world metaphysics (phenomenal/noumenal) and rejects the monological interpretation of the categorical imperative.  Habermas favours an intersubjective or communicative version of the principle of universalizability, even though in Kant’s kingdom of ends one finds an inter-subjective dimension already. In communicative ethics the ideal is in practical discourse. Discourse ethics makes good its claim with a notion of rational consensus or rational acceptability as the best general account of more ordinary moral intuitions.  The abstract notion of equal respect implicit in the idea of communicative action is in contrast to Kantian and Utilitarian attractive claims of respecting individual autonomy or integrity and concern for the welfare of others or solidarity. Habermas understanding of communicative rationality enhances agreement between subjects rather than instrumental control of thing.

In his The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity (1985), Habermas criticizes postmodern thought for resting modern philosophy of consciousness against which its criticism is directed.  The modern and contemporary philosophy dwells either of the following positions: Subject is regarded as one object among others in the world, or as a ‘transcendental’ subject. The paradigm shift is necessary with a model of communicative action in which subjectivity is first approached through the intersubjective relations of individuals with one another. In short, modernity remains an ‘unfulfilled project,’ which is not to be abandoned but to be amended. (Baynes 1998)

4.12     LET US SUM UP

Critical theory emerged from a group of intellectuals in Frankfurt, Germany, who studied social and economic issues in contemporary society from socialist perspective. Critical theory is designated as the approach to social theory developed initially by people like Max Horkheimer, Theodor Wiesengrund Adorno and Herbert Marcuse and later by Habermas.  They involved themselves with the forces, which moved society towards rational institutions. They conceived of these rational institutions as ensuring a true, free and just life, while at the same time being aware of the obstacles, which rendered radical change untenable and difficult. Critical theory developed in the background of various political and historical events in the West especially between 1920s and 1930s that had surely shaken many a Marxist followers. The Marxist theory of the day let down the expectations of the followers, for, political events and revolutionary practice had not coincided with the expectation derived from the Marxist ideals.

Marcuse claimed that the modern world had brought into existence a ‘new sensibility,’ with its demand for aesthetically satisfying forms of immediate experience and its refusal to participate in consumer society. It represented a significant new political force in the world. The social change is necessary to accommodate the ‘new sensibility.’ Adorno in particular was uncompromising in his opposition to the idea that philosophy should consist of a closed system of interconnected propositions that rested on a purportedly firm foundation and claimed universal validity. Jürgen Habermas, have tried to develop further some of the central components of critical theory. In the second generation of critical theorists a return to the kind of Neo-Kantian philosophy is witnessed. In the work of Habermas we find the Kantian themes of finding a fixed universal framework for theorizing, giving firm foundations for knowledge claims of various sorts, and investigating the conditions of the possibility of various human activities. The critical theroists had tried to make Marxism more viable and suited to their own time. Especially Habermas tried to revise and reformulate Marxist tradition. His project had a radical democratic character looking forward to expand the sphere of freedom and aiming at harmony between theory and practice. For him knowledge is historically rooted and interest bound. His theory of communication claims that all speech is oriented towards the idea of genuine consensus. In all, Critical method had contributed to philosophy in its criticism of positivism and its demand that social theory be reflective. (Geuss 1998)

4.13     KEY WORDS

Instrumental Reason              : Rationality of humans defined only in terms of domination and control of objects of nature, especially in science.

Discourse ethics                      : is communicative ethics where the norms are deliberated in the society and validated.

Communicative Action           : Habermasian theory of ideals with due emphasis on practices being deliberated in ideal speech situations with speech acts.

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UNIT 1           PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD: WESTERN AND INDIAN

Contents

1.0       Objectives

1.1       Introduction

1.2       Phenomenology in Philosophy

1.3       Phenomenology as a method

1.4       Phenomenological Analysis of Knowledge

1.5       Phenomenological Reduction

1.6       Husserl’s Triad: Ego, Cogito, Cogitata

1.7       Intentionality

1.8       Understanding ‘Consciousness’

1.9       Phenomenological Method in Indian Tradition

1.10     Phenomenological Method in Religion

1.11     Let us Sum up

1.12     Key Words

1.13     Further Readings and References

1.0       OBJECTIVES

•           To expose to the students the phenomenology in both Western and Indian traditions

•           To illustrate the method used in philosophical systems concerning the human subjectivity and consciousness.

1.1       INTRODUCTION

Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) was a German philosopher, mathematician and physicist. His works are ‘Logical Investigation (1900), Phenomenology and crisis of philosophy (1910), Ideas (1913), Cartecian Meditation (1931), Philosophy and Crisis of European Man.  Important contribution of Husserl is his notions of ‘Intentionality, Noema and Noesis, Epoche, Life-world. His phenomenology revolutionized philosophy. We understand the reality from our own experience. Continental philosophy and hermeneutics evolved from phenomenology. Understanding reality as a method in philosophy is phenomenological. There are two features of phenomenology. First is all knowledge about reality or world must be the last analysis with our highly personal experience. This brings in the question of whether there is objective knowledge possible at all. Secondly, Phenomenology is concerned with meaning or perspective I have on objects.

1.2       PHENOMENOLOGY IN PHILOSOPHY

Phenomenology is a study of ‘appearances’ as they are experienced in one’s subjectivity. It is the study of structure of consciousness which are common to all consciousness. It examines the way in which phenomenology constituted “in” or  by” consciousness. Phenomenology is cognitive approach to the field of studying aiming at rigorous and interpersonal knowledge by way of describing the intentional act and intended object.  Hume used ‘phenomenologism,’ to mean it as only impression. Husserl uses it differently. Kant used phenomenon and neumena as opposite in their conception, former meaning ‘things as it appears’ and the latter to mean ‘things as it is.’ Husserl’s usage was little closer to Kant yet different. Hegel also used this term, phenomenology. His famous book phenomenology of spirit, clearly shows that Hegelian notion is different in understanding although he used Kantian terminology. Bentan influenced Husserl by his, what is known as, descriptive psychology. He also used the word phenomenology he come closer to Husserl.  From the question of being, as in metaphysics, phenomenology moved to the concern of ‘meaningfulness of reality.’ The terms phenomenon and phenomenology derive from the Greek for “appearance”. Phenomenon refers to a thing or event that appears to human consciousness. Phenomenology, thus, is the study of manifestations. Edmund Husserl believed that as far as our knowledge of the world goes, all we can know is phenomena. Husserl agreed with Descartes that the one thing we can be certain of is our own conscious awareness.

1.3       PHENOMENOLOGY AS A METHOD

For Husserl European science in particular and Western society in general had lost direction. From the time of enlightenment, reason had increasingly bifurcated from man’s essential, ‘transcendental’, identity. He was convinced that we should return to ‘things themselves’. The method of approach he advocated for the attainment of these ends is called phenomenology.  In his phenomenological method, Husserl succeeded in relocating reason as an intergral, a priori, faculty of human consciousness.  He allows human consciousness to ‘intuit’ its own essence. For Descartes, what one can be certain about existence is one’s own conscious awareness. Husserl agrees with this view of consciousness. He says, ‘if we want to build our conception of reality on rock-solid foundations, that this is the place to start’. (Magee 1998, 211) As Descartes begins by doubting everything but not doubting itself, Husserl believes that the study of mind should begin by setting aside all that is not given in consciousness: ‘all that does not belong e the mental state of the subject’. (Scruton 1994, 139)

The method Husserl introduces for this analysis or examination of things as they appear to our consciousness is called ‘phenomenology’. Husserl believes that the first step towards any attempt to understand the theoretical problems which he confronts have to appropriate access to phenomena themselves. Phenomenology thus evolves as a method of approaching phenomena in their pure state. Phenomena, for Husserl, is anything, imagined or objectively existing, ideal or real, that presents itself in any away to individual consciousness. Husserl’s aim is to develop a method that will not falsify these phenomena, but will allow them to be described as they appear – as things themselves. Thus, when Husserl recommends the return to things themselves, what he is recommending is a return to an analysis of things as they appear to consciousness. Husserl thought that all sciences had evolved randomly and were made up of a combination of empirical act and theoretical supposition. Theoretically this hotchpotch was unacceptable: what was required was a clear account of the nature and the theories which were deemed central to scientific investigation. What was needed was a new method which could clearly identify the metaphysical presuppositions inherent in the sciences.

1.4       PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF KNOWLEDGE

Philosophy is more a method than a preoccupation with knowing the reality. Epistemology is the study of the method of knowing.  The word epistemology comes from two Greek words, namely, ‘episteme’ (knowledge) and ‘logos’ (science); that is to say, it is the science of the being as the knowing, or the science of human mind with respect to its aspect of knowing. In the past, it was called Noetics, Gnoseology, Higher Logic, Material Logic, Critical Logic, Applied Logic, and so on.  Epistemology covers a wider spectrum of themes.  Apart from laying the standards of truth, it treats the structure and the conditionings of the knowing mind, the very process of cognition, the accompanying states of mind, the role of sense organs in the cognitive process, the nature and limitations of human knowledge, etc. When people ordinarily say that they know something, most often, what they mean is that they believe, think, hope, opine, doubt or wish something. However, when a philosopher says he knows something, he means that he knows that thing beyond any doubt, with full certitude borne out of a thorough scientific investigation. Normally we say that knowing is an exclusive activity of human beings and inanimate things do not know. Although animals possess some ‘intelligence’, we say it is mere instinctual responses or conditions.  Only humans have reason and deliberate activity of knowing. In knowing we create a sort of mental representation of a thing in the mind. A thing is said to be having a twofold existence, within and without the mind.

Husserl dedicated himself to a search for the very foundation of human knowledge. His first passion had been mathematics and he became gripped by a vision of a philosophy that provided the certainty found in mathematics. He wanted to create a philosophy that was a "rigorous science". Yet his focus was not on the so-called "objective" truths of empirical science, but on the "subjective" process of human thinking; not on so-called "facts" but on "phenomena", things as they appear to the mind.

For Husserl, all genuine knowledge rested on inner evidence. Knowledge, in the strictest sense, means it is inwardly evident that something is the case. Human acts must be fulfilling intuitions. In order to grasp this ‘inner evidence’, it is necessary to ‘bracket’ all that is inessential so that the essences of phenomena can speak for themselves. In order to grasp this ‘inner evidence’, says Husserl, it is necessary to ‘bracket’ all that is inessential so that the essence of phenomena can speak for itself. For Husserl the study of mind begins by setting aside all that is not given in consciousness.  It begins by stripping our perceptions down to their simplest forms, shedding all our layers of habit and assumption. Husserl calls this kind of perception “bracketing”. Since all we can know are things that appear to our consciousness, he said, let us ignore the questions that we cannot answer and deal with those we can answer. The human mind understands the world by bringing it under certain concepts, and each concept presents an essence. These essences are not discovered by scientific inquiry and experiment, but are revealed to consciousness where they can be grasped by intuition. In order to grasp the true essence of things themselves we must clear the mind of all the debris that prevents intuition from forming. And it is only by “bracketing” all those presuppositions and prejudices which clutter our minds that we can approach the true essence of the object: that we can study what is left as an object of pure inner awareness.

For Husserl, the ultimate truth is that all we can know for certain is that we have pure consciousness. All objects and acts that appear to consciousness must be treated with circumspection: they must be kept under constant review. Before feelings, imaginings, fears, doubts, and even thought itself, there is pure consciousness – the transcendental ego. Thus, while Husserl seems to echo Descartes, in effect he goes beyond the cogito. For Descartes the only thing we can know with any certainty is that we are thinking things – “I think, therefore I am”. For Husserl, it is more the case that “I am, therefore I think”. Pure consciousness can be grasped by thought, but it is not synonymous with thought. For Husserl, in order to think, first we must be – we must have consciousness. (H. Spielberg "The Phenomenological Movement" Vol. 1 1865, pp.76-82.)

1.5       PHENOMENOLOGICAL REDUCTION

Phenomenological reduction, according to Husserl’s teachings, is the exclusion from consideration of everything. It is transcendent and anything else derived via scientific or logical inference. A phenomenologist would consider only what was immediately presented to consciousness. For Jean-Paul Sartre, what one suggested what one know of a person or item are all that one can evaluate. An object, even a person, is only what one sees and experiences of that object. The rest, Husserl suggested, was “bracketed out” from judgment. Husserl referred to this suspension of judgment as epoché. As an example, via this theory, a colour seen by one individual is known only to and by that one person. Measuring it scientifically, comparing to other colours, et cetera, do not truly change that what the individual sees is the only thing consciousness comprehends. The colour experienced is the “pure phenomena”, the scientific data are held in suspension, or epoché. Only the phenomenological knowledge is certain, and then only to the individual.

Eidetic reduction is the abstraction of essences. The essence abstracted via eidetic reduction is the intelligible structure of the phenomena found in consciousness. The goal is to find the basic components of a phenomena. For example, a chair might include the colour, the materials used, and the shapes present in the structure. We apply basic, Platonic forms to all phenomena, according to Husserl. These basics allow us to communicate and describe a phenomena with some accuracy, though this lessens the original phenomena in some manner. Returning to the example of colour, one knows there are component colours. If one thinks too much about the mixture of colours, the colour viewed is devalued. Green is green, according to Husserl, not a mixture of blue and yellow subtractive. The scientific knowledge of colour is the universal form: there are agreed upon mathematical representations of colour. Still, colour is a personal and subjective phenomena, further complicated by differences in human senses, such as colour blindness.

Husserl was unable to come out of this transcendental suspension. The harmless “bracketing” of commonsense realities became the metaphysical thesis that they can have none but an “intentional” existence in and for consciousness. Husserl does not see that we cannot suspend a belief if the belief suspended is meaningless.

(Findlay, Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy, 145)

1.6       HUSSERL’S TRIAD: EGO, COGITO, COGITATA

What a phenomenologist considers important is that which can be experienced via the human senses. After reduction and abstraction, what remains is what an individual knows, regardless of the scientific or transcendental data. After removing the transcendental and the scientific, what remains is the Phenomenological Residue of the phenomena. This residue exists in three forms: ego, cogito, and cogitata. Phenomenological Ego is the stream of consciousness in which one acquires meaning and reality from the surrounding environment. Husserl considered it a great mystery and wonder that a group of beings was aware of their existence, in effect human consciousness is the phenomenological result of introspection. By observing that “I can touch and see my being,” we recognize that we exist. The science proving we exist is not of value to human consciousness. The ego is always present, or nothing exists for the individual. Cogito or cogitations comprise all the acts of consciousness, including doubting, understanding, affirming, denying, etc. The ego exists only as a result of these cogitations and these cogitations continue only as long as we are self-aware. Cogitata are the subjects of thought or objects of consideration. One cannot deny or understand nothing — something must be under consideration for thought to occur. In the presence of nothing, there is no person, no individual.

1.7       INTENTIONALITY

It comes from two word “in + tendare” ‘in’ means towards. ‘Tendare’ means tending, tending towards. Husserl did not use it for first time but Avicena (Islamic) used this word and later on developed by scholastic philosophers. Intentionality is the power and the vitality of consciousness. He says physical objects have no intentionality. Only mental objects have intentionality. Physical objects have capacity to tend to its objects. Intentionality is stereological towards objects. Intentionality has direction in a way, object-orientedness. Physical objects are not oriented.  Consciousness always refers to something. Consciousness is always conscious ‘of’ something. Consciousness must have an object always. He says “ego cogito cogitatum” I think something. So far philosophers said only I think but Husserl told that “I always think something.” What is that something is a different question altogether, but thinking is always about something. Consciousness is co-relational, not just relational. Descartes theory of consciousness is called container theory of consciousness as he says that consciousness is simply reflection of objects. Kant also says that mind has a role to play. Co-relational means it is reference theory of consciousness. For Husserl my mind is not simply reflecting. 

Meaning, says Husserl, is neither in the mind, nor in the world alone, rather it is discovered by the a priori modes of intentionality. These intentional modes fall into three categories – perception, imagination, and signification. Intentionality is like a screen between consciousness and the world onto which objects and acts are projected. Without the screen objects and acts would not exist. Intentionality, then is a conduit, a channel, between consciousness and phenomena. Consciousness itself cannot be grasped as itself because it is intentional: it is always directed towards that which is not consciousness: it is always looking away from itself. It is only by an analysis of intentionality that consciousness itself can be discovered. Thus, when we peel away the encrustaceans of preconditioning not only can we intuit the essence of things themselves but also the essence of consciousness – pure consciousness. To examine consciousness, we need to bracket out all objects and facts. What remains is “the transcendental ego”, which, for Husserl, is pure being - Absolute Being. It is important to realise that Husserl does not deny that the real world exists; rather that it is only realisable in virtue of the transcendental ego. Without pure consciousness, nothing is possible. Pure consciousness is before all acts and objects. It is only through pure consciousness that all other entities are known; and they are known as entities that appear in consciousness.

For Husserl the world and the entire filed of objectivities would appear before us as being correlated with consciousness. Transcendental consciousness ‘constitutes’ the world.  In spite of his insistence on methodological devices for phenomenology, Husserl’s followers and the philosophical scholarship have not been able to see their relevance for a phenomenological way of doing philosophy. H.L. van breda, Eugine Fink, J.N. Findlay, H. Spiegelberg and Merleau-Ponty are unanimous on the dubious philosophical value of these devices. (Rafy, 2010)

1.8       UNDERSTANDING ‘CONSCIOUSNESS’

Husserl’s view on the self is understood from the issues concerning the unity of consciousness. Hume says, “There are some philosophers, who imagine we are every moment intimately conscious of what we call our SELF; that we feel its existence and its continuance in existence…. For my part, when I enter most intimately into what I call myself, I always stumble on some particular perception or other, or heat or cold, light or shade, love or hatred, pain or pleasure. I never can catch myself at any time without a perception, and never can observe anything but the perception.”(Hume 1978, 251-2). Reflection does not reveal a continuously existing self. It is a constantly changing stream of mental states. There is no impression of self. The idea or concept of self that we have of ourselves is problematic. For Hume, there are two problems of conscious unity: firstly, synchronic unity of consciousness and the distinction between subjects of experience; secondly, diachronic unity.

Kantian understanding agrees at one level with Hume on the question of self-awareness but goes in disagreement concerning the legitimacy of the concept of the self. The diverse experiences are unified by the self, as Kant says, “The thought that these representations given in intuition all together belong to me means, accordingly, the same as that I unite them in a self-consciousness, or at least can unite them therein… for otherwise I would have as multicoloured, diverse a self as I have representations of which I am conscious.” (Kant 1929, sec. B143). Kant brings in the notion of the self as unifier of experience. For him, it is legitimate to appeal to an ‘I’ that unifies experience since such a thing is precisely a condition of the possibility of experience. Without such a unifying self, experience would not be possible. The I, for Kant is transcendental. It is brought into the account as a condition of the possibility of experience.

Husserl claims that the self is experienced indirect intuition. He writes, “I exist for myself and am constantly given to myself, by experiential evidence, as ‘I myself.’ This is true of the transcendental ego and, correspondingly, of the psychologically pure ego; it is true, moreover, with respect to any sense of the word ego.” (Husserl 1960, sec. 33). For Kant the ‘I’ has a role in structuring experience but not given itself in experience. For Husserl the ‘I’ plays this structuring role and is also given in inner experience. The ego appears but not as (part of) a mental process. It’s presence is continual and unchanging. Husserl says that it is, “a transcendency within immanency” (Husserl 1982, sec. 57). It is immanent in that it is on the subject side of experience; It is transcendent in that it is not an experience (or part of one).

Sartre understands that consciousness is empty and denies not only of sensory qualities but also our experiential awareness of an ego within consciousness. Sartre denies that the ego is given in pre-reflective experience, either in the content of experience (as an object) or as a structural feature of the experience itself (as a subject). As he puts it, “while I was reading, there was consciousness of the book, of the heroes of the novel, but the ‘I’ was not inhabiting this consciousness. It was only consciousness of the object and non-positional consciousness of itself.” (Sartre 1960, 46-7). Again, “When I run after a streetcar, when I look at the time, when I am absorbed in contemplating a portrait, there is no I.” (Sartre 1960, 48-9). For him, the self can appear to consciousness, but it is paradoxically experienced as something outside of, transcendent to, consciousness. With respect to unreflective consciousness, however, Sartre denies self-awareness. Sartre also denies that the ego is required to synthesise, or unite, one’s various experiences. Rather, as he sees it, the unity of consciousness is achieved via the objects of experience, and via the temporal structure of experience.

1.9       PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD IN INDIAN TRADITION

All classical Indian schools speak of consciousness, its intrinsic nature, its place in the causal processes, its relations to objects in the world, and the possibilities. Accordingly their epistemological conceptions are shaped by their positions on consciousness. Key issues are whether it has forms of its own or assume content with reference to objects, its relation to objects in the world. Madhyamikas have anti-theoretical notion on it. Nyaya and Mimamsa take world-oriented theories, while Advaita vedanta speak of self as consciousness in a spiritual and mystical sense. Advaita is emphatic about the world-transcendent nature of consciousness. The only content of it is self-aware consciousness itself.  The worldly content is viewed as an illusion and a deformation, a falling away from being conscious in itself.  The relation is explained this way: With regard to the world, uninvolved witnessing is upheld as the state the least estranged from what consciousness is in itself. Samkhya and Yoga prefer a dualistic view of consciousness with regard to nature of it. The world is contrary to the true nature of consciousness. They are separate realities. It is problematic how they are related at all. Nature ranges without break from luminous and malleable mentality to gross material elements. In this the mind is viewed as capable of presenting to the witnessing person of things that are continuous with the things represented. (Phillips 1998).

Yogacara deployed arguments similar to epistemological idealists. Theirs were also compared to Kant as held by Western scholars. Some even think that these Buddhist thinking is very closer to Husserl’s phenomenology. There are lots of similarities between what is known as Husserl’s description of noesis and noema, and Buddhist analysis of the grahaka and grahya.  Husserl’s noesis is the consciousness projecting its cognitive field. Yogacara's grahaka is a similar to noesis as a cognitive grasper. Noema of western phenomenological tradition, which is understood as the constructed cognitive object, is similar to the cognitive grasped, grahya of the Buddhist tradition.

Husserl did play down the notions of causality. Yogacara developed complex systematic causal theories. These theories were considered as of great importance to Yogacara. In western tradition the ontological realm was afforded at least sufficient to acknowledge its existence in their philosophical enquiry method. Whereas for yogacara was critical of that particular motive in all its manifestations. Yogacara is a type of epistemological idealism. The purpose of its arguments was not to produce an ontological theory of reality. They insisted on shifting one’s attention to the epistemological and psychological conditions of human cognitive activities that compel us to construct and attach to ontological theories. From being epistemological idealists they could extend their investigations to be critical realists.

Yogacara has the doctrine of types of consciousness (manovijnana)- visual, auditory, etc. Each consciousness is produced by the contact between its specific sense organ and a corresponding object. Consciousness depends on sensation.  Enlightenment consists in bringing consciousness to an end, replacing with enlightened cognitive abilities (jnana). When consciousness ends, true knowledge begins. (Lusthaus, 1998)

1.10     PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD IN RELIGION

What is called the phenomenology of religion is a descriptive approach to the philosophy of religion. Meaning and understanding of what is religion is a primary issue in it. From the existing divergent beliefs and practices among various religions, the quest for the essence of religion is sought here. With an existential orientation, the concern is more towards our own mode of being in the world than about the question of ultimate being. So the issue is what it means to be religious with the faith and beliefs one has. From phenomenological perspective, philosophy of religion is merely a normative enterprise reflecting on the truth of religious beliefs with proofs and arguments for and against. Phenomenology of religion brackets such concerns and holds that religion is an observable phenomenon of human life.  To understand better what is religion is to give a descriptive analyses of that aspect of human experience and to give us deeper insight into the structures and functions of these widespread human activities. Phenomenologist approaches religion as a matter of belief and focuses attention of the essence or the common nature of religions.

For Kant, we can set forth the basic structures of our experience of the world although there can be metaphysical disputes about what the world really is. So, the subject matter is phenomenal rather than noumenal. In Husserlean method transcends the natural attitude by moving from fact to essence and by bracketing questions about the reality of the world as distinct from the mode of its givenness in experience (the epoche). Kierkegaard says that reflection always emerge from within the concrete situatedness of human existence. It clarifies the possibilities that confront us. Phenomenological method in religion presupposes that theoretical reason cannot settle metaphysical disputes in all its modes and criticizes traditional method of philosophy of religion as engaging in unwarranted speculation on things that are undecidables. Even the debates in theology become theoretician’s luxury in a realm of abstraction that is least bothered about the living God and the concrete concerns and inescapable choices of existing individuals.

From the objective question of what is religion? God? and so on, the phenomenological concern is towards What would it mean to be religious distinct from being irreligious?  Phenomenological method here is looking more for meanings than facts; meanings as living; looking for what happens rather than what happened.  As Phenomenology addresses itself to modes of our experience the focus is not just the subjective side of religion but on the ‘object’ of religious experience. In this sense, the concept of God or gods, for instance, not appropriate for religious ‘objects’ as the Buddha nature. This ‘Buddhahood’ is the being of all things and yet anatta, non-substance or no-self. Again, the highest experience of God or Brahman or Allah etc., is beyond the structure of subject-object experience. Hence the terms like ‘sacred’ ‘holy’ ‘divine’ ‘power’ ‘other’ become generic names for the ‘object’ of religion.  Van der Leeuw stresses its remoteness. However frequently one encounters it, it never becomes usual or familiar, but remains a  ‘highly exceptional and extremely dangerous "Other"’ ([1933] 1963 (1): 24). Accordingly, encounters with the sacred are accompanied by amazement, fear, and especially awe. Rudolf Otto’s earlier study, The Idea of the Holy (1917), defines the holy as the mysterium tremendum et fascinans (overwhelming and fascinating mystery). The holy as mysterious is the ‘object’ of religion which is non-rational or ineffable in the sense of exceeding our conceptual apprehension. Calling it as mysterium tremendum evokes fear and dread and designates the sacred as wholly other. Yet as fascinans, it is uniquesly attractive and fascinating. (Westphal, 1998)

1.11     LET US SUM UP

Phenomenology is not a unified doctrine as its main proponents - Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre and Merleau-Ponty - interpret it differently. Phenomenology is a method of philosophical investigation which results in a radical ontological revision of Cartesian Dualism. In phenomenology consciousness is intentional and directed onto objects. Phenomenologists interpret the intentionality to mean that subjects and objects are essentially interrelated. All consciousness is essentially consciousness of objects and all objects are essentially, if not explicitly, objects of consciousness.

As a method in arriving at knowledge, especially in dealing with research methodology in philosophy, phenomenology has a lot to contribute. Phenomenological method has a purpose of being descriptive and presuppositionless. It is descriptive of one’s experience of the world by putting aside assumptions about the world’s existence and character. And secondly, one seeks to describe particular, concrete phenomena. Phenomena are not contents of the mind; they all involve an experiencing subject and an experienced object. Phenomenological description aims to make explicit essential features implicit in the ‘lived-world’ - the world as we act in it prior to any theorizing about it. The phenomenological method reveals that practical knowledge is prior to propositional knowledge - knowing that arises from knowing how.

As being presuppositionless it scrutinizes scientific and philosophical theories.  The phenomenological reduction is as called by Husserl ‘bracketing’ or ‘the epoché’. It is to bring to our attention the realm of phenomena, the ‘lived-world’, the world as we experience it. Basic aim of phenomenological method is to explore how the world appears with a view to finding the experiential basis for, and meaning of, our belief that the world exists independently of our experience of it. Phenomena are our experiences of the world. One needs to remain neutral concerning the ontological status of that ‘world’. Phenomenological description can avoid theoretical assumption of reality. While theoretical entities may have a place in the natural sciences, they have no legitimate place in philosophical enquiry. Philosophy should not take scientific realism for granted.

1.12     KEY WORDS

Phenomenology:  It is a study of ‘appearances’ as they are experienced in one’s subjectivity.

Bracketing (epoche): For Husserl the study of mind begins by setting aside all that is not given in consciousness.  It begins by stripping our perceptions down to their simplest forms, shedding all our layers of habit and assumption. Husserl calls this kind of perception “bracketing”.

Phenomenological reduction:  According to Husserl it is the exclusion from consideration of everything. It is transcendent and anything else derived via scientific or logical inference.

Cogito or cogitations: It comprises all the acts of consciousness, including doubting, understanding, affirming, denying, etc.

Cogitata: They are the subjects of thought or objects of consideration. One cannot deny or understand nothing — something must be under consideration for thought to occur. In the presence of nothing, there is no person, no individual.

Intentionality: It is the power and the vitality of consciousness. Physical objects have no intentionality. Only mental objects have intentionality.

UNIT 2                       ANALYTICAL METHOD: WESTERN AND INDIAN

Contents

2.0       Objectives

2.1       Introduction

2.2       Analysis in History of Philosophy

2.3       Conceptual Analysis

2.4       Analysis as a Method

2.5       Analysis in Logical Atomism and Logical Positivism

2.6       Analytic Method in Ethics

2.7       Language Analysis

2.8       Quine’s Analytical Method

2.9       Analysis in Indian Traditions

2.10     Let us Sum up

2.11     Key Words

2.12     Further Readings and References

2.0       OBJECTIVES

•           To introduce to the students philosophical discussions on meaningfulness of word, sentence in language used. 

•           To give a overall picture of analytical tradition both in West and India on the question of language and reality.

•           To enable students to cull out from the philosophies of language analytical method used in sorting out philosophical problems.

2.1       INTRODUCTION

Generally any philosophical analysis is a method of inquiry.  Analysis is normally understood as assessing complex systems through simpler elements. In philosophical analysis we do seek the complex thought pattern by breaking them into simpler components. Analytic philosophy was a leading philosophical tradition and a dominant branch of philosophy in the West in 20th century. Having emerged and dominated the English speaking world for decades analytical tradition steadily grew to influence the continental philosophy.  From the beginning of Indian philosophical tradition there had been issues related to meaning of terms, sentences and the meaningfulness of language.  This we may consider in par with the 20th century discussion in the West on language and reality.

2.2       ANALYSIS IN HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY

Analytical method has a long history in philosophy, although it became prominent at the start of the twentieth century. In classical Greek, the term ‘analysis’ denoted the activity of taking something apart and became a model for explanations of complex structures in reference to parts. In Descartes, the idea of analysis reappeared with the reference to identify the simple natures as characteristic of one’s subject-matter. (Arnauld, A.; Descartes, R.). In John Locke’s account of complex ideas in terms of their constituent simple ideas the analysis found a place. Moving from the Cartesian analysis of ‘ideas’ to the analysis of our capacities for understanding and judgement, Kant’s position is ‘Transcendental Analytic.’  In the further development of idealist tradition, we find in Hegel a shift from the method of analysis to the method of dialectic. (Baldwin 1998)

G. E. Moore appropriately calls for a return to the method of analysis breaking the idealistic trend of dialectics.  He maintained that ‘a thing becomes intelligible first when it is analysed into its constituent concepts’ (Moore 1899: 182). Moorean conception of analysis inspired Russell in his analytical programme. Logical positivists developed the method further in their anti-metaphysical project. Russell’s development of logical theory paved a way for analysis as legitimate philosophical inquiry. Expanding the philosophical inquiries beyond the logical positivist’s position, analytical philosophy included the analysis of structures of language and thought. From the conception of linguistic analysis the central concern of analytical philosophy became language and meaning. Frege and Quine forwarded arguments for and against the methods of analysis. Brentano’s approach to psychology was explicitly analytical, which enables us to understand Husserl’s programme of phenomenological analysis. American pragmatist, C.S. Peirce wrote that ‘the only thing I have striven to do in philosophy has been to analyse sundry concepts with exactitude’ (Passmore [1957] 1968: 104).

By 1945 most analytical philosophers had abandoned any commitment to simple meanings and basic certainties, and that the positivist thesis that philosophy could only be analytical philosophy was also soon rejected. They rested only on the assumption that methods of analysis can clarify conceptual and epistemological relationships that would contribute to dissipation of philosophical problems. Quine questioned the assumption that there is a clear distinction (the ‘analytic/synthetic’ distinction) between logic and other disciplines and the assumption that there is a single chain of justification from observation to more speculative claims about the world (Quine 1953). For him we find only a complex network of interdependent relationships and our understanding of each other, and in particular of each other’s utterances, is generally underdetermined by our observations of each other. Quine earlier pointed to the holistic structure of our language and beliefs. Rorty viewed that Quine’s writings signaled the end of analytical philosophy (Rorty 1980). Yet, analytical philosophy still survives by retreating to the pre-positivist position of analysis as an ingredient of philosophical inquiry, involving inference and justification that connect concepts, beliefs and statements. Analytical philosophy made a remarkable expansion, both geographically and disciplinary, with the acceptance and use of its methods in outside Europe and in areas of philosophy such as ancient philosophy and Marxism. (Baldwin 1998).

Recently analytical philosophy turned its attention to philosophy of religion. Early thinkers had anti-metaphysical trend where religious claims were considered as unverifiable or as part of a language game. After 1950s Plantinga contributed to epistemology of religion and Swinburne has worked extensively in natural theology. Analytical tradition now covers range of topics from traditional theistic concerns to objections to theism. (Wehinger 2010)

2.3       CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS

The theory of conceptual analysis holds that concepts are the fundamental objects of philosophical inquiry. Accordingly, insights into conceptual contents are expressed in necessary ‘conceptual truths’ (analytic propositions) which could be obtained by two methods: (1) direct a priori definition of concepts; (2) indirect ’transcendental’ argumentation. John Locke’s doctrines of general ideas and definitions had an element of analysis in decompositions of complex general ideas into sets of simple ideas. Further analysis had its foot in Locke’s distinction between ‘trifling’ and ‘instructive,’ universally certain propositions and in his distinction between ‘intuitive’ and ‘demonstrative’ knowledge. In his Critique of Pure Reason, Kant makes three crucial sets of distinctions; between ‘analytic’ and ’synthetic’ propositions, between a priori (necessary, experience-independent) and a posteriori (contingent, experience-dependent) truths, between proofs by empirical methods and ’transcendental’ proofs. (Hanna 1998)

2.4       ANALYSIS AS A METHOD

Explanation of a whole by referring to its parts, becomes a gist of analysis. Although in physical science the decomposition of a whole into its parts is well understood, analysis in philosophy needs certain clarification. In logical analysis the inferential significance of a statement in its logical form depends on the simple logical constants in the statement. Logical analysis of a statement can lead one to discern the presence of logical constants which are not apparent in the surface structure of the statement. For instance, in Russell’s famous illustration, “The present King of France is bald.” For Russell, a statement’s logical analysis revealed the ‘constituents’ of the proposition expressed by the statement. Complex claims to knowledge are justified by reference to simpler items of evidence.  In empiricist tradition, all evidence is perceptual evidence. Analysis of perceptual evidence unravels the complexity of beliefs. Phenomenological analyses are not mere introspective descriptions of appearance but are meant to bring out the priorities within different modes of consciousness. (Baldwin 1998).

Russell develops his theory of descriptions into a theory of ‘logical fictions.’ It implies that our ontological commitments are less extensive than it is supposed.  For both Moore and Russell philosophy is not just analysis. Wittgenstein brought out the paradigmatic exercise in logical analysis with assumption that  ‘A proposition has one and only one complete analysis’ (Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus 1922: 3.25). From the Vienna circle the positivists analysis rested on the beliefs that ‘what is left over for philosophy… is only a method: the method of logical analysis’ (Carnap 1932: 77). For them the proper task of the philosopher is to engage in logico-epistemological analysis.  It clarifies the questions about the world with the answers based on scientific observation and experiment. In the explicitly anti-metaphysical contexts of logical positivism we find the transition from ‘philosophical analysis’ to ‘analytical philosophy.’ The former is conceived of as an important method of inquiry while the latter restricts genuine philosophy to analysis. (Baldwin 1998).

Analytic method in philosophy has a diverse concerns from logic, epistemology and language.  The developments within analytic tradition show this. Concerns of the analytic philosophers ranges from aesthetics to ethics to history of philosophy. There is no defiition in terms of a certain set of doctrines or method for analytical philosophy. From the early days of analytical tradition there was no shared methodological approach among philosophers. Even after the linguistic turn there was no methodological constraint on the philosophers to adopt. In post-Quinean period we find concerns of analytical traditon on metaphysics, mind, religion, etc. Amidst the diversity of doctirne and methods analytical philosophy is a method of philosophizing. It emphasized argument, rationality and sought clarity. (Wehinger 2010)

Method in Conceptual Analysis

In any conceptual analysis, the theory is as follows: A concept is a general content possessing intrinsic, individuating structures and relations (an intension), and having a corresponding application either to sets of actual or possible objects (an extension), or to other concepts. Secondly, a concept is the meaning of a predicate-expression; and all such words have meanings only in the context of whole sentences used (first and foremost) in making statements in ordinary discourse. Thirdly, every true proposition expressing conceptual interconnections is necessary and analytic. Fourthly, purely conceptual inquiry produces important a priori knowledge. This knowledge is expressed in analytic propositions known to be true either by (a) direct definitional analysis of conceptual contents, or by (b) indirect ‘transcendental’ arguments. Fifthly, all fundamental philosophical errors arise from misunderstandings of concepts, and can be corrected only by proper conceptual analyses. Therefore from the above understanding on the concept and knowledge, concepts are understood as playing a role as universals. They ontologically depend upon ordinary language and not otherworldly. Concepts have necessary relations to one another. Concepts govern the ways we think about all things and other concepts. Thus not only all philosophical truths, but also all philosophical errors, are conceptual. The two methods of conceptual analysis - definitional and transcendental - must be employed not merely as means of philosophical insight but also for the unmasking and diagnosis of conceptual confusions. (Hanna 1998)

2.5       ANALYSIS IN LOGICAL ATOMISM AND LOGICAL POSITIVISM

In the beginning of 20th century G.E. Moore and Betrand Russell opposed the British idealism. Moore’s A Refutation of Idealism (1903) and Russell’s (along with A.N. Whitehead) Principia Mathematica became influential for analytical method. It aimed at reconstructing ambiguous or misguiding terms of our language by means of the ideal language of predicate logic. It tried to develop a foundation that logic and mathematics could be based on. Gottlob Frege’s logical tools were adopted well by Russell. (Wehinger 2010)

Logical positivist like Alfred Jules Ayer endorsed the ideal of scientific knowledge. The goal was to reconstruct, on the basis of empirical observation and by means of formal logic, our statements about the world. The logical positivists dismissed as meaningless those statements for which such a reconstruction was not possible and that were not tautologically true.  The logical positivists thus embraced a verificationist criterion of meaning. Only verifiable statements can be meaningful. (Wehinger 2010)

2.6       ANALYTIC METHOD IN ETHICS

Moral philosophy has traditionally been divided into normative ethics and meta-ethics. Normative ethics concerns judgments about what is good and how we should act. Meta-ethics, with which ’analytic ethics’ is typically identified, seeks to understand such judgments. The questions before analytic ethics are: are they factual statements capable of being literally true or false? Or are they commands or expressions of attitude, capable only of greater or lesser appropriateness or efficacy? The former leads to cognitivism where the focus is on the facts of moral judgments. The latter leads to non-cognitivism. The cognitivists question whether they are discovered from experience or they are like mathematical facts. The noncognitivists argue that moral judgments are not fact-stating and that they are only signals of our feelings or commitments, or are imperatives of conduct. Concerning the moral judgments another question is whether they are subjective or objective. Analytic ethics is concerned about the meaning of moral terms. It offers specific insights into morality and contributes to our understanding of the functions of thought and language.  (Railton 1998)

In ethics some like Hume, stressed the role of sentiment and others like Kant stressed reason for the faculty involved in moral judgments. Ordinary moral practice or the external force as a standard for moral judgment was discussed. After analytical philosophy, especially after G.E. Moore, questions of meaning got separated from substantive questions, moral concepts discussed in non-moral terms (for example, ‘Good’ = ‘Conducive to happiness’). Good cannot be analytically reduced to a natural property. Logical positivists divided cognitively significant propositions into two categories, the analytic, knowable a priori because tautological, and the synthetic, knowable a posteriori by empirical means. Loyal to the positivist bifurcation, A.J. Ayer (1936) concluded that moral judgments expressed not cognitively significant propositions, but emotions. (Railton 1998)

2.7       LANGUAGE ANALYSIS

In post-world war period in the West, many did not want to return directly to old-fashioned metaphysics.  They extended the analytical techniques to normative aspects of language. In Wittgenstein’s writings there was a hope to end philosophical perplexities.  In the writings of Ryle, Austin, Strawson and other ‘ordinary language’ philosophers there was still old metaphysical questions like status of the mind, appearances and universals.

After 1960s Analytical philosophy was no longer confined to the logico-epistemological analyses of Russell and the logical positivists. It has a much broader concern with language. Russell, Moore and early Ludwig Wittgenstein, thought that such logical or conceptual analysis—in the sense of a reconstruction of language with the tools of logic—would eventually yield the simple, unanalyzable building bricks of reality, a view called logical atomism. Later this emphasis on conceptual analysis turned into a move towards language as the primary object of enquiry. This linguistic turn asserted that a philosophical explanation can only be achieved by way of an analysis of language. (Wehinger 2010)

Frege’s sense/refernce distinction was significant in this context. Frege’s philosophy of language was brought into the mainstream of analytical philosophy through Carnap’s writings. Dummett’s claim that the distinctive feature of analytical philosophy is the priority it assigns to the philosophy of language. The sentences are true only in virtue of the nonlinguistic thoughts they express. His ‘theory of meaning’ and of Donald Davidson are to be seen against ‘theorizing’ of Wittgenstein’s later writings. There are those who argue for the alternative priority of mind over language employ the methods of logical and epistemological analysis characteristic of previous analytical philosophers. They threatened to bring about the ‘end of analytical philosophy.’ (Baldwin 1998)

Ordinary language philosophy emerged after the fall of logical positivism. From the Moorean common sense approach towards philosophical problems, which argued that the philosopher’s starting point had to be the ordinary meaning of propositions, ordinary language philosopher stressed the need for not replacing the meaning but to elucidate the ordinary meaning of the statements in accordance with common sense. Later Wittgenstein’s influence for the ordinary language movement is worth mentioning. He questioned the idea of an ideal language in favour of a plurality of what he called language games, each of which functions according to its own rules. He put the linguistic turn of logical positivists into practice. He was convinced that traditional philosophical problems arise only if we do not use words in accordance with the rules of the corresponding language game. Accordingly, the philosopher’s task was to cure such misuse of language. (Wehinger 2010)

2.8       WITTGENSTEIN AND ANALYTICAL METHOD

In his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, Wittgenstein presents a logical atomist picture of reality and language. The world is full of independent facts. Each is composed of some combination of simple objects. Each object has a distinctive logical shape which fits it to combine only with certain other objects. These objects are named by the basic elements of language. Each name has the same logical shape. An elementary sentence is a combination of names. If it is true it will be a picture of the isomorphic fact formed by the combination of the named objects. Ordinary sentences are misleading in their surface form. When analysed these would reveal the real complexity implicit in them. These deep truths about the nature of reality cannot be properly be said but can only be shown. The picture theory of meaning: In each individual sentences, one needs to understand that each says one thing but is essentially either true or false. The sentence is complex and has components which represent elements of reality. The truth or falsity of the sentence then depends on whether these elements are or are not assembled into a fact. When we properly understand the nature of our language we see that we cannot formulate the supposed sentences in the first place.

Picture Theory:  Picture theory is the earlier position of Wittgenstein. According to this theory, the ontological structure of the world which is logical has its parallel in the structure of the language. The names being basic constituents of the propositions which are either true or false as expressed in the logic of language have a correspondence to the structure of the world. That which can be logically represented in the language is a possible state of affairs in the world. The logical necessity of propositions determines the states of affairs in the world.

Language Game: Language game theory is expressed in the Investigations. The language game theory moves from the foundations of logic to the nature of the world.  The shift therefore is from the limited understanding of language, language of the natural sciences to the language of wider forms of life. It is no longer one view of language rather languages within the language. A sentence / proposition does presuppose a ‘language game’, but a language game will be only a small segment of the whole of language. It is the use, employment  of particular word in the given language game gives rise to meaning. The language game theory therefore, is the understanding that the language is determined by rules which are particular to the form-of-life.

Later in his Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein changes his previous position presenting language not as a fixed and timeless framework but as an aspect of vulnerable and changeable human life. He changed the idea that words name simple objects was incoherent, and instead introduced the idea of ‘language games’. When a language is taught words and actions are interwoven. To understand a word is to know how to use it in everyday life. He abandoned also solipsism and favoured the view that there are many selves, aware of and cooperating with each other in their shared world. 

In presenting the contrasting views in his earlier and later writings, Wittgenstein contributed to analytical tradition that philosophical puzzles often arise out of language. Philosophical insight is not to be gained by constructing quasi-scientific theories of puzzling phenomena. It is to be achieved by seeking to be intellectually honest. (Heal 1998)

2.8       QUINE’S ANALYTICAL METHOD

Quine insisted upon a close connection or alliance between philosophical views and those of the natural sciences. Philosophy is an activity within nature wherein nature examines itself. Quine takes account of the theoretical as well as the observational facets of science. The unit of empirical significance is not simple impressions (ideas) or even isolated individual observation sentences, but systems of beliefs. Quine proposes a new conception of observation sentences, a naturalized account of our knowledge of the external world, including a rejection of a priori knowledge. Quine confines logic to first-order logic and clearly demarcates it from set theory and mathematics. They are internal to our system of beliefs that make up the natural sciences. The language of first-order logic serves as a canonical notation in which to express our ontological commitments. Our ontological commitments should be to those objects to which the best scientific theories commit us.

The theory of reference is sharply demarcated from the theory of meaning. Quine is the leading critic of notions from the theory of meaning, arguing that attempts to make the distinction between merely linguistic (analytic) truths and more substantive (synthetic) truths has failed. They do not meet the standards of precision which scientific and philosophical theories adhere to and which are adhered to in the theory of reference. He explores the limits of an empirical theory of language and offers a thesis of the indeterminacy of translation as further criticism of the theory of meaning. The picture theory of meaning: In each individual sentences, one needs to understand that each says one thing but is essentially either true or false. The sentence is complex and has components which represent elements of reality. The truth or falsity of the sentence then depends on whether these elements are or are not assembled into a fact. When we properly understand the nature of our language we see that we cannot formulate the supposed sentences in the first place. (Orenstein 1998)

Quine challenged the logical positivists’ distinction between analytic and synthetic truths and the verification of scientific claims. He rejected the method of conceptual analysis. He proposed a holistic account of meaning. Meaning of a statement cannot be fixed once and for. It depends on the relation it has with other statements within a language. Through his ontological relativity, he claimed that reference is inscrutable.

2.9       ANALYSIS IN INDIAN TRADITIONS

From the ancient Vedic period onwards debates on language and linguistic theories has received much attention in philosophical issues. Especially in the grammatical works we find explicit philosophical reflections. For instance, Tamil grammatical work of Tolkappiyar, known as Tolkappiyam and Sanskrit Ashtadhyi of Panini, contain not just literary norms and notions but have deeper insights on language and reality. Bhartrhari is a celebrated philosopher of language in the ancient period.  His Treatise on Sentences and words and his development of theory of sphota are worth mentioning. For him sphota is a linguistic entity distinct from a word’s sounds. Classical Nyaya philosophers joined the group and developed a strong philosophy of language in Indian tradition. These Indian philosophers of language debated mainly on i) the search for minimal meaningful units, and (ii) the ontological status of composite linguistic units. In the ancient period with the grammarians search for the meaningful units was given much attention. In the later period the linguistic reflection was more on the ontological status of composite linguistic units. (Bronkhorst 1998)

The Meaning of ‘meaning’

‘Artha’ is used to denote ‘meaning.’ Meaning can be the meaning of words, sentences as well as nonlinguistic gestures and signs. Various Indian theories of meaning, testify to the differences prevailing among philosophical schools with regard to their ontological and epistemological positions, their focus on a certain type of discourse, and the ultimate purpose in theorizing. Meaning can be primary, secondary, suggested or intended meaning. When a verbal cognition results from the primary signification function of a word, the object or content of that cognition is called primary meaning. When a verbal cognition results from the secondary signification function of a word, the object or content of that cognition is called secondary meaning. When a verbal cognition results from the suggestive signification function of a word, the object or content of that cognition is called suggested meaning. When a verbal cognition results from the intentional signification function of a word, the object or content of that cognition is called intended meaning. With this realistic ontology in mind, Nyaya-Vaisesika argue that if the relation between a word and its artha were a natural ontological relation, there should be real experiences of burning and cutting in one’s mouth after hearing words like agni (‘fire’) and asi (‘sword’). Therefore the relationship between a word and the object must be a conventional one (samketa), the convention being established by God as part of his initial acts of creation. It is through this established conventional relationship that a word reminds the listener of its meaning.

Mimamsa school developed a full-scale theory of ontology and an important theory of meaning. The Vedic scriptural texts are eternal and uncreated and they are meaningful. In this system the relationship between a word and its meaning is innate and eternal. For various schools of Buddhism, language relates only to a level of conceptual constructions, which have no direct relationship to the actual state of the world. Theravada and the Vaibhasikas argued that a word refers to a thing which, in reality, is nothing but a composite entity made up of components which are momentary and in a continual flux. The components, the momentary atomic elements (dharma), are presumed to be more real, but words do not refer to this level of reality. Thus language gives us a less than true picture of what is out there. Other schools of Buddhism, such as Vijnavada, reduced everything to fleeting states of consciousness (vijnjna). From this point of view, the objects referred to by words are more like fictions (vikalpa) or illusions (maya). (Deshpande 1998)

Meaningfulness and Ontological Status of Linguistic Units

From the Vedic tradition of giving etymological explanation to names and terms related to their sacrificial practice and utterances, mantras, Vedic search for meaning of linguistic unit had begun. In Yaska’s Nirukta, etymological treatise, only nouns and adjectives are said to be etymologically explained where as verbal forms could not be. Panini’s grammar furnishes stems and affixes on the basis of a semantic input, and these stems and affixes are subsequently joined together, and modified where necessary, so as to yield words and sentences . For Panini these ultimate meaningful constituents are really meaningful than the ‘surface forms.’ Panini’s sutra 1.2.45, recognizes three meaningful entities, namely verbal roots, nominal stems and suffixes. He indicates that words and sentences are considered to have a composite meaning. (Bronkhorst 1998)

The ontological status of linguistic units is answer the questions like whether words and sentences really exist. If so, how can they, given that the phonemes that constitute them do not occur simultaneously? Since, moreover, simultaneous occurrence is a condition for the existence of collective entities, do individual phonemes exist? They, too, have a certain duration, and consist therefore of parts that do not occur simultaneously. For the Sarvastivadins of Buddhism dharmas, constitute all that is. There are three dharmas, namely, phonemes (vyanjanakayas), words (namakaya) and sentences (padakaya). These are exiting entities but momentary. For Patanjali too phonemes and words are eternal. In Bhartrhari this notion played a vital role as he held that more comprehensive totalities are more real than their constituent parts.  During the period of Patanjali and Bhartrhari the discussion was centered on the linguistic unit as meaning-bearer. The meaningless individual phonemes came to be separated from that of meaningful words, grammatical elements (stems and affixes) and sentences. In Bhartrhari’s philosophy of language linguistic units and the ‘objects’ they refer to are treated parallel.  (Bronkhorst 1998)

Sphota Theory

Patanjali and Bhartrhari use the word sphota to refer to linguistic entities conceived of as different from the sounds that reveal them. For Patanjali, the sphota does not necessarily convey meaning; he uses the term also in connection with individual phonemes. For Bhartrhari, the sphota is a meaning-bearer, different from the sounds that manifest it. For him sphota might be a mental entity or the universal residing in the manifesting sounds. Sphota as meaning-bearing or not, became point of contention and discussion rather than the question what exactly sphota is. The question of meaningfulness of a sequence of phonemes each without meaning, had been answered variously. According to some, a sequence of sounds can express meaning; they have to show how it does so. Others hold that this is not possible; they solve the problem by postulating the existence of the sphota. In his Slokavarttika Kumarila Bhatta of Mimamsa tradition gives the classical expositions of both these positions. Bhatta accepts the eternal existence of individual phonemes. Though the constituent phonemes of a word are not pronounced simultaneously, they are remembered together the moment the last phoneme is uttered. Mandana Misra in his Sphotasiddhi protests against the idea of the combined memory of the phonemes that constitute a word. The sphota is directly perceived: it is gradually revealed by the phonemes. In the sixteenth century, Nagesa Bhatta through his various treatises dealt on sphota doctrine. The Sphotavada enumerates eight types of sphota: (1) phoneme, (2) word, (3) sentence, (4) indivisible word, (5) indivisible sentence, (6) phoneme-universal, (7) word-universal, (8) sentence-universal. These sphotas are primarily meaning-bearers. Nagesa affirms the idea that only sentences really exist, that words and grammatical elements are no more than imaginary. The sentence-sphota is most important. During Nagesa’s period again, the conflict existed between the two major issues of grammar namely, the search for minimal meaningful units on the one hand, and the ontological status of composite linguistic units on the other. For Nagesa, finally, only the sentence is ‘real’, rather than words and smaller grammatical elements. Grammar is concerned with the smallest identifiable meaningful elements and the way they combine to form larger units. (Bronkhorst 1998)

Sentence-meaning

Most schools of Indian philosophy have an atomistic view of meaning and the meaning-bearing linguistic unit. A sentence is put together by combining words and words are put together by combining morphemic elements such as stems, roots and affixes. The word-meaning may be viewed as a fusion of the meanings of stems, roots and affixes, and the meaning of a sentence may be viewed as a fusion of the meanings of its constituent words. Beyond this generality, different schools have specific proposals. Prabhakara proposes that the words of a sentence already convey contextualized/connected meanings (anvitabhidhana) and that the sentence-meaning is not different from a simple addition of these inherently connected word-meanings. The Naiyayikas and the Bhatta propose that the words of a sentence taken by themselves convey uncontextualized/unconnected meanings, and that these uncontextualized word-meanings are subsequently brought into a contextualized association with each other (abhihitanvaya). Therefore, sentence-meaning is different from word-meanings, and is communicated through the concatenation (samsarga) of words rather than by the words themselves. This is also the view of the early grammarians such as Patanjali and Katyayana. For the later grammarian-philosopher Bhartrhari, however, there are no divisions in speech acts and in communicated meanings. He says that only a person ignorant of the real nature of language believes the divisions of sentences into words, stems, roots and affixes to be real. Such divisions are useful fictions and have an explanatory value in grammatical theory, but have no reality in communication. In reality, there is no sequence in the cognitions of these different components. The sentence-meaning becomes an object or content of a single flash of cognition (pratibha). (Deshpande 1998)

All schools of Indian Philosophy accept the true cognition as characterised by ‘self-consistency’ (samvada) and ‘uncontradictability’ (abadhitatva). Of course uncontradictability does not mean as ‘not being contradicted by another true cognition,’ but being in coherence with other known truths. Logical Positivist theory of the West reduces ‘truth’ only to coherence of a proposition with a set of other propositions previously accepted as true is not found in Indian traditions. In upholding the theory of truth there are two major trends among Indian systems. That the Truth is either ‘self-validitating’ (svatah-Pramanyavada), or to be validated by something other than itself (paratah-Pramanyvada). Samkhya, Mimamsa and Vedanta uphold the truth to be svatah-pramanya. Nyaya-Vaisesika speak of paratah-pramanyatva of Truth.

2.10     LET US SUM UP

In Indian philosophy of Language, grammarians were interested in language and cognition. Nyaya-Vaisesikas were primarily interested in logic, epistemology and ontology. They argued that a valid sentence was a true picture of a state of reality. For Mimamsa, meaning had to be eternal, uncreated and unrelated to a person’s intention. The Buddhists aimed at showing the emptiness of everything, including language and they demonstrated how language fails to portray reality.

2.11     KEY WORDS

Picture Theory             : Early Wittgenstein’s theory that language pictures reality.

Sphota Theory : Indian theory of meaning that refers to linguistic entities conceived of as different from the sounds that reveal them. Sphota is primarily meaning-bearers.

UNIT 3              HERMENEUTICAL METHOD: INDIAN AND WESTERN

Contents

3.0       Objectives

3.1       Introduction

3.2       Sabda

3.3       The Power (Sakti) to Convey Meaning

3.4       Three Meanings

3.5       Pre-understanding

3.6       The Semantic Autonomy of the Text

3.7       Towards a Fusion of Horizons

3.8       The Hermeneutical Circle

3.9       The True Scandal of the Text

3.10     Literary Forms

3.11     Let Us Sum up

3.12     Key Words

3.13     Further Readings and References

3.0       OBJECTIVES

While dealing with the question of understanding, we must be able to formulate key guiding principles of hermeneutics. To the extent, through a meaningful dialogue with a text, we understand what understanding a text means, we can articulate more viable hermeneutical principles. That is what we envisage in this unit. However, in the first part, we shall examine hermeneutics from the perspective of Indian Philosophy and we shall limit this to the study of language in Indian Philosophy.

3.1       INTRODUCTION

Language plays an important role both in the Indian and the Western hermeneutics. In the West we know of Frege, Russell, Wittgenstein who are bent upon extolling the role of language in philosophy. They had influenced the logical positivists of the Vienna circle so much that the logical positivists were keen on constructing a symbolic language free of confusion and dubiousness. Let us now turn our attention to some of the discussions of language in Indian philosophy more specifically in Indian hermeneutics. To dwell at depth into Indian philosophy of language or Indian hermeneutics is beyond our scope. We shall therefore restrict ourselves to the discussions concerning language that emerges from one of the valid means of knowledge (pramana) in Indian epistemology called sabda. In this unit we attempt to systematize some of the hermeneutical principles that are at work in the process of understanding.

3.2       SABDA

Sabda is one of the pramanas in the Indian epistemology accepted almost by all the important philosophical schools of India. Sabda is the means to obtain sabda. Sabda is the pramana and sabda is the resulting knowledge of testimony. Sabda is a sentence spoken by an authority. An authority is a person who knows the truth and tells the truth (not all truth but truth pertaining to the point). A sentence is a group of words. Word is that which has the power (sakti) to convey a meaning. There is confusion because sabda literally means word. So this understanding of word includes sentences. There is a lot of controversy between Mimamsakas ans Nayayikas with regard to the definition of a sentence as group of words. The discussion hinges on the question, how do you know the meaning of sentence? According to Mimamsakas, we understand the meaning of a sentence when the words in the sentence are connected with the verb. But according to Nayayikas, we understand the meaning of a sentence when the words are connected without necessarily being connected with the verb.

The Mimamsakas hold that the verb in a sentence is the most important word and without verb we cannot understand the meaning of a sentence. For example Devadatta book is a group of word but we do not understand its meaning unless it is connected with a verb, say for example, brings. Thus Devadatta brings book conveys the meaning. Similarly, Devadatta home has no meaning but Devadatta goes home conveys the meaning of a sentence. Verbs deal with action and according to Mimasakas, the action is the most important thing. The action of going is qualifies, specified or limited to this particular person goes. It is the action of going, which has Devadatta s it subject and home for it s object. The reason why Mimamsakas emphasize verbs is because according to them salvation is attained by ritual works. They are ritual activists. Upanisads react against this and say that one must renounce everything and become a sanyasin, In Upanisads, there are also certain passages pertinent to the ritual works. For Mimamsakas these passages are primary and the passages dealing with Brahman are secondary. For Advaita Vedantins what is said about Brahman is primary ritual injunctions are secondary. But according to Nyaya-Vaisesikas, we need only connection between as words in a sentence and verb is not necessary. They give the example, Kancyam Tribhuvanatilah bhupatih. Kanchyam means in Kanch, bhupatih means protector of earth, therefore it refers to the king. Tribhuvanatilah is the name of the king though his name means climax of three worlds. So the translation is, in Kanchi, King Tribhuvanatilah. There is no verb in this sentence, yet meaning is conveyed.

3.3       THE POWER (SAKTI) TO CONVEY MEANING

A word has the power to convey the meaning. Is this power God-made or human convention (for example people agree kamala means lotus). There is a controversy between Nyaya-Vaisesikas on this point. Ancient Nyaya-Vaisesikas say that the meaning is fixed by God, God fixes especially the names like kamala etc. and personal names are conventions. Some say that God fixes even personal names. Modern Nyaya-Vaisesikas say meaning of all words is a matter of convention. Mimamsakas say that the power (sakti) to convey meaning is a separate category (padartha) like dravya (substance). They come to the conclusion by elimination. But Nayayikas would not accept It as a separate padartha because of some problems. For example, the word pankaja means lotus. We Panka means mud and ja means born, so pankaja means that which is born in mud. Not only lotus, but there are other things in mud. If sakti is a separate padratha we will have to admit different meanings to pankaja.

There are four theories: Kevalavyaki, Kevalajati, Jati Visita-Vyakti and Apoha. Kevalvyakti only the individual (Kevala means only, vyakti means individual) For example, father tells the son ghatamanya (bring the jar). What does the word jar conveys – this particular jar, jarness or jar and jarness? Jar is Vkyati: jarness is jati. According to this theory, only the individual jar is meant not the jarness. This is a view hold by modern Nayayikas. They say that suppose jar means jati, then ghatamanya means bring the jarness. But you cannot bring the jarness, you can bring only the individual jar. Those who say ghata actually refers to jati, therefore jarness object to this saying, then we will have to have different words for different jars because jarness is not involved. It is not practical, so it refers to jati.

Kevalajati is proposed by Mimamsakas. The word ghata conveys the meaning of jati (class). Jati also include vyakti (individual jar), but the reference to individual jar is only by implication and therefore secondary. Jati visista-Vyakti is proposed by ancient Nayayikas. The word ghata refers to vyakti which is qualified by a jati. So, both are involved. Thus when the word ghata is used it fulfils three functions – it points to a particular jar, it also signifies that this particular jar is similar to all other jars in the world and it also distinguishes jars from non-jars like trees, stones, etc. Apoha –exclusion is held by one type of Buddhists who are idealists and believe that we cannot know the external reality. When a person says ghata, neither is there are jar actually, no it refers to a jati. It is a mere idea, only a concept. What is ghata then? It is a word in reference to something which is not actually existing, which separates it from other things. A ghata is not a pata. Their point is we cannot know a thing in itself. That’s why it is called apoha.

3.4       THREE MEANINGS

Every world is capable of conveying three meanings – abhida, laksana, vynjana. Abidha means primary or direct meaning. Laksana means secondary or implied meaning. Vynjana means suggestion. Vynjana is not accepted by Nyaya-Vaisesikas. Let us explain it with an example – gangayam ghosah. Its primary meaning is village on the Ganges. This primary meaning is not acceptable because village cannot be on the on the Ganges. This primary meaning is not acceptable, we move to laksana or the secondary meaning. Its secondary meaning is village on the bank of the Ganges. Those who accept Vynjana would say that the person referring to the village on the bank of the Ganges suggests the idea of coolness. This is found in poetry. But Nyaya-Vaisesikas do not accept this.

The power (sakti) to convey the meaning of a word takes place in three ways – Yoga, rudhi and yogarudha. Yoga means etymology. Through etymology we come to know the meaning of a word. Such a word is called yaugika word. For example, pacaja is derived from paca, which means cooking. Therefore pacaja means a cook. Here the word pacaja conveys its meaning through etymology. Rudhi means customary meaning. It is not the etymology that conveys the meaning of a word but people have conferred on it a conventional meaning. The word may or may not have an etymology but it is not significant. Yogarudha is combination of etymology and customary meaning. For example, the etymological meaning of Pankaja is that which is born in mud but by convention it is confined only to lotus that is born in mud. Similarly the etymological meaning of madhukara is one who makes honey and by convention it is confined to bee. The same can be said of hastin whose etymological meaning is one who possesses hand and by convention it is referred to elephant.

Laksana means implication and they are of three kinds – jahallaksana, ajahallaksana and jahalajahallaksana. Jahat means abandoning so in jahallaksana the primary meaning (abidha) is totally abandoned. For example, the primary meaing of mancah krosanti is beds are crying. But beds do not cry, so the implied meaning is children on bed are crying. Therefore, the meaning of bed is totally abandoned. In ajahallaksana the primary meaning is not abandoned but in addition, there is an implied meaning. For example, the primary meaning of chatunah yanti is umbrellas are going. What is implied here is human persons carrying umbrellas are going. The primary meaning however is retained because the umbrellas move along with the persons carrying them. In the case of jahalajahallaksana, the primary meaning is partly kept and partly abandoned. For example when someone says, This is Devadatta, the meaning of Devadatta si retained while the qualifications of Devadatta of yesterday etc. are abandoned.

3.5       PRE-UNDERSTANDING

Understanding presupposes pre-understanding. Understanding is a process and is built upon pre-understanding. Human person is ever becoming and is in the process of growth. Understanding is part of this process. Thus pre-understanding consists not merely of the acts of understanding but to the whole growth process that is at work in every act of understanding. Understanding something therefore implies understanding it from the viewpoint of certain questions raised by ones pre-understanding. Let us take the simple example of the tree. There are different people who are concerned about it: the botanist, the ecologist, the woodcutter, the carpenter, the tribal etc. Each one of them understands it differently because each one of them raises questions from different perspective. Thus for the botanist the issue is, what family or species does the tree belong to? for the ecologist, will the tree be cut down by the developmental officers? for the woodcutter, how much money can I gain by chopping this tree? for the carpenter, what kind of furniture can I make out of this? and for the tribal, how can I prevent anyone from uprooting this tree that is the abode of the spirits of my ancestors? Thus the tree will be understood differently - according to each of these questions. Each of them is posed by a different kind of pre-understanding.

In the process of understanding, the thing to be understood strikes the one who understands according to his or her pre-understanding. It is pre-understanding that determines the kind of questions the person who wants to understand raises. Thus no understanding is possible without pre-understanding and the questions it raises. Bultmann expresses this in his The Problem of Hermeneutics in the collection of Glauben und Verstehen: Every understanding like every interpretation is continually oriented by the way the question is put and by standpoint. This it is never without a pre-understanding of the matter it is questioning the text about. Understanding means precisely responding to the issue that the pre-understanding raises. This explains why we have interest in something and noninterest in other things. Both interest and non-interest are testimonies to pre-understanding itself.

If we wish to understand what is at work in every act of understanding, we must pay attention to our pre-understanding or prejudgments (not yet the final judgment but the stage antecedent to it, in the court of law it refers to the stage where the advocates sum up their arguments). This is because our pre-understanding determines both the choice as well as the direction of our search for meaning. The pre-understanding of Nietzsche shapes his understanding God as the supreme power who makes merry at the fragility of the humans and thus restoring human dignity consists in killing him. Our search for meaning and truth is shaped by and large by our prejudgments. This should help us to be aware that we look at reality from a particular perspective and what is meaningful from one perspective may be absurd from another. We can cite a number of examples from within religious traditions. God as Trinity that is profound and insightful within the Christian tradition is prone to be pointless within the Jewish or Islamic tradition of monolithic monotheism. The point is well made - the point of departure for understanding is pre-understanding. This will help us not to absolutize our way of looking at reality.

3.6       THE SEMANTIC AUTONOMY OF THE TEXT

If pre-understanding shapes our understanding, the presumption of objectivity (the concern of epistemology is at stake. There is no such thing as an objective reading of a text. To get to know the mind of the author whether dead or living is naive and inessential. Hence the text as it has come of age must speak for itself. Suppose if the author makes further comments on what he originally intended in his literary work (art, poem, play, film etc.) what status does it occupy? Once the text leaves the desk of the author it is autonomous and his extra-textual comments must be on par with the views of others. On the other hand, we should not fall into the trap of what Ricoeur calls the fallacy of the absolute text. A text is not an authorless entity - it remains a discourse said by someone to someone else about something. It is impossible to cancel out this main characteristic of discourse without reducing texts to natural objects, ie, to things which are not man-made but which, like pebbles, are found in the sand. For Ricoeur, there are two extremes and both are to be avoided. One extreme is the dependence of the text on the intention of the author because primarily we can never know the mind of the author and secondly any rich text will have more than one meaning. Another extreme is doing what one wants with the text as if the text has no author at all.

Ricoeur in this context speaks of the semantic axis of the text. There are certain limits within which a text needs to be interpreted. There are two aspects at work in the process of understanding - the semiotic stage and the semantic stage. The semiotic stage is the decoding of the complex set of codes and the semantic stage is where the meaning emerges. (These are not really two stages because meaning emerges in the act of decoding.) It is here that the reader has to apply the hermeneutic of suspicion - whether he or she reads meaning into the text. For this purpose he or she has to rely on the text as a whole and discover the axis around which the whole text revolves. One can employ any method to study the text as a whole. The semantic axis shows how the text hangs together and what holds it together. But even if an interpretation goes against the original intention of the author it is equally a valid interpretation, provided it is well within the overall thrust of the text. This is to say that we cannot distort the meaning of the text by selective reading, omitting some elements and exaggerating other elements according to our convenience and vested interest. The semantic autonomy of the text is not a pretext to make the text say what one wants according to ones whims and fancies.

3.7       TOWARDS A FUSION OF HORIZONS

We are indebted to Gadamar for the original and significant contribution of his fusion of horizons. The text has its own horizon of its own and the reader has his or her own horizon. The horizon of the text includes the context and the life situation of the author in which the text emerged and also the successive readings it has gone through. The more a text is historically distant the broader its horizon. The horizon of the present reader refers to the readers life situation inclusive of his or her pre-understanding. The semantic autonomy of the text paves way for the fusion between the horizon of the text and of the reader. The reader approaches the text with his own pre-understanding to understand the text and its meaningfulness for him or her for his life in the present situation. Thus the preoccupations of hermeneutics have come to a full circle: from the concern of what lies behind the text (the authors intention) to what lies in the text (what the text says) towards what lies in front of the text (the emergence of meaning with the fusion of the horizon of the text with that of the reader).

3.8       THE HERMENEUTICAL CIRCLE

Suppose we are given a book written in a totally foreign language (say Hebrew or Greek) we can only stare at it. No understanding is possible because we have no point of entry into the world of the text. On the other hand if it is a simple and plain sentence like The Hermeneutics class is interesting, there is nothing to interpret because the meaning is self-evident in this case. Thus the meaning of a text must somehow be clear but not totally for interpretation to become necessary. Thus says Dilthey in his Patterns and Meaning in History: Interpretations would be impossible if expressions of life were completely strange. It would be unnecessary if nothing was strange in them. It lies, therefore, between two extremes. Thanks to the hermeneutical circle we can read a text and widen our understanding or correct our previous understanding of the same.

Understanding, therefore, is basically a referential operation; we understand something by means of something we already know. A whole sentence, for instance, is a unity. We understand the meaning of an individual word by seeing it in reference to the whole of the sentence; and reciprocally, the meaning of the sentence as a whole is dependent on the meaning of individual words. By dialectical interaction between the whole and the part, each gives the other meaning; understanding is circular then. Because within this circle the meaning comes to stand, we call this the hermeneutical circle.

The circularity of understanding implies that there is no true starting point for understanding because every part presupposes the others. It seems to suggest a logical contradiction. If we need to understand the whole before understanding the parts we would have understood nothing. On the other hand the part can be understood only in reference to the whole. This brings us to the awareness that there is no such thing as having understood once and for all. The analogy of the game given by Gadamar is of great significance here. Understanding can be compared to a game. The game may be played many times but there is no such thing as the final and the definite game. Every time the game is played according to the rules of the game, yet every time played differently, so also is understanding. Every time we play the game of chess, we understand it better, but we will never arrive at a stage where we have understood it completely. We begin with the understanding of the part and grasp the meaning of the whole in the light of our understanding of the part. In the process, the meaning of the part becomes better understood in the light of the whole. So there is back and forth in our understanding and every time we read• the same text we discover the emergence of new meanings.

3.9       THE TRUE SCANDAL OF THE TEXT

In the process of understanding in which the fusion takes place, not only the text acquires new meanings but the reader is also challenged by the text. Any text especially the religious text worthy of name must scandalize us. The English word scandal is derived from the Greek skandalos meaning a stumbling block. Thus when we speak of a text scandalizing us we mean the text challenging some of our ideas and actions that are dehumanizing. Ricoeur points out that every hermeneutics is, explicitly or implicitly, self-understanding by means of understanding others. In this context, we can make a distinction between true scandal and false scandal. The true scandal of the text is the meaning emerging from the text having the ability to clarify our pre-understanding and in the process to critically challenge them. What we uphold to be true and correct conventionally may be called into question. We should remember the role of the tradition that influences the way we see reality. We live by certain myths provided by our tradition. These myths are so powerful that they can grip us to the extent that we do not realize them as myths and are to be demythologized. It is Bultmann who introduces this concept of demythologization. He is critiqued on the ground that we cannot live without myths, hence what we need to do is not demythologization but remythologization. But what Bultmann meant by demythologization is not doing away with myths but to identify and recognize them as myths. This will enable us and our presumptions to be challenged by encountering a text, say like the Bible.

In order to understand the false scandal of the text, it is better to make a distinction between what is said and how it is said. What is said is the meaning of the text. How something is said refers to the vehicle by which the message is transported. This vehicle is inclusive of the knowledge of the tradition in which the text came to be. This knowledge is inclusive of cosmology, anthropology, theology and so on. But it is not this knowledge that is communicated but through which something else is communicated. Hence as Ricoeur says, we must make attempts to overcome the distance between the cultural epoch to which the text belongs and the interpreter himself. Thus, on dealing with any text we must take pains in separating the meaning and the cultural vehicle through which the meaning is passed on.

It is in this connection that Bultmanns demythologization becomes important. As we have made reference earlier, his demythologization is more often misunderstood than understood. He does not intend to purge away the mythical elements and reduce the text to shallow literalism. Far from it, he wants to emphasize the original meaning embodied in myths. These myths do not provide us cosmological information but challenge us as powerful symbols summoning us to a radical and new self-understanding.

3.10     LITERARY FORMS

When we glance through a newspaper, we see a variety of literary forms. There is an editorial - a critical analysis of some significant events. Its purpose is not merely to state facts but also to evaluate them form a specific point of view. We find reporting of events, which is aimed to give a factual account of what had happened. It is true that no two newspapers report the same event in the same way. There may be disagreements on what is known as facts but they may not be diametrically opposed to the happening of an event. Thus for instance, the figure of death toll in an earthquake may vary according to different news reports but no paper would refuse that the earthquake took place. There is a special section on comics in every newspaper, of course, meant to make us burst into laughter. All newspapers are flooded with advertisements with an end to sell goods and commodities. Obviously to achieve this end, exaggerated statements are made in advertisements. We are familiar with famous phrases such as the complete man, better than the best, made for each other and so on. We do not take these statements or catchy slogans in the advertisements as gospel truths. When we read the newspaper, we quickly recognize these different literary forms and interpret them accordingly.

From our ordinary experience of reading newspapers, we shall now try to make a workable definition of literary forms. A literary form is a manner or a style by which particular information is passed on to achieve a specific end and is judged by the effective means it applies to realize the end. It becomes clear that the criteria of judging one literary form cannot be applied to another. A good joke is one that makes us laugh and a good advertisement is one that persuades us to buy the commodity it advertises. These are two different literary forms. We don’t reject an advertisement because it does not make us laugh or we don’t reject a joke because it contains no factual description of an event. It would be a grave mistake if we were to do so. Hence it is important to identify the literary form of a text before we begin to interpret it. Obviously we cannot interpret Shakespeares Macbeth in the way we would interpret Karl Marx Das Capital.

Wittgenstein uses the analogy of language games. Each game has got its own rules. Applying the rules of football to cricket or basketball to judge football would be foolish. Likewise every discipline is a literary form in its own right and the rules of one are not applicable for another. Thus for instance when a poet describes the beauty of a gin by comparing it with the full moon it has to be acknowledged as poetic. We should not apply the rules of astronomy that the gin is a celestial thing. This is all the more important in the religious language that is symbolic and has to be acknowledged as such.

3.11     LET US SUM UP

We have discussed in the beginning the significance of Indian hermeneutics particularly that of sabda. We have also seen how language plays an important role in hermeneutics both from the Indian and the Western philosophical points of view. Some of the key hermeneutical principles are also discussed at length to enable the students to apply these principles in their textual reading and to make an authentic interpretation of the text and deepen their understanding.

3. 12    KEY WORDS

pramana: Means of knowledge.

Sabda: Verbal testimony.

laksana: Implication.

Semantic Axis: The axis which shows how the text hangs together and what holds it together.

The Semantic Autonomy of the Text: Once the text leaves the desk of the author it is autonomous and his extra-textual comments must be on par with the views of others.

Scandal: The English word scandal is derived from the Greek skandalos meaning a stumbling block.

Demythologization: identifying and recognizing myths as myths

UNIT 4           DECONSTRUCTIVE METHOD

Contents

4.0       Objectives

4.1       Introduction

4.2       The Seminal Idea of Deconstruction in Heidegger

4.3       Deconstruction in Derrida

4.4       Structuralism and Post-structuralism

4.5       Sign, Signifier and Signified

4.6       Writing and Trace

4.7       Deconstruction as a Strategic Reading

4.8       The Logic of Supplement

4.9       No Outside-text

4.10     Difference

4.11     Let Us Sum up

4.12     Key Words

4.13     Further Readings and References

4.0       OBJECTIVES

It is very hard to restrict deconstruction as a method. In fact, the key thinker of deconstruction, Jacques Derrida has always resisted pinning it down as a method. However, in this unit, we shall briefly discuss the various aspects of deconstruction starting from its seminal idea found in Heidegger. In order to have a better grasp of deconstruction as a strategy, we also deal with related concepts in Derrida’s Philosophy such as difference, trace, supplement and arche-writing.

4.1       INTRODUCTION

Deconstruction is a method or a school of philosophy today. This practice of textual analysis is used to dissect numerous writings (philosophy and literature), to reveal their shifts and confusions of meaning by means of a reading focusing on the assumptions implied and omissions unveiled by the text itself. This concept, participating in both philosophy and literature, won a great reputation in the United States of America, where it is equated with the postmodern philosophy, and more generally to the different approach of continental philosophy in Europe. If the term “deconstruction” was first used by Heidegger, it is the work of Derrida which has systematized its use and theorized its practice.

4.2       THE SEMINAL IDEA OF DECONSTRUCTION IN HEIDEGGER

The term deconstruction in Derrida appears for the first time in Of Grammatology translated without explicit Heideggerian terms. Derrida explained that he wished “among other things,” to provide a translation for the German terms of Destruktion and Abbau, that Heidegger employs in Being and Time, Derrida believes that his translation is more relevant than the classical translation of Destruktion and Abbau as destruction, insofar as it does not refer so much to the destruction of metaphysics, to reduce it to nothingness, than to show how it was built.

Both Destruktion and Abbau in this context meant an operation on the structure or traditional architecture of the founding concepts of ontology or of Western metaphysics. But in French the term “destruction” too obviously implied annihilation, a negative reduction closer to the “demolition” found in Nietzsche, which Derrida rejected. In fact, the word deconstruction appeared from 1955 in French philosophy in the context of the translation of the text of Heidegger “Contributions to the question of Being” (Zur Seinsfrage). Granel Gerard chose this term “deconstruction” to translate Abbau the German word that he wanted to distinguish from “destruction” (translation of Zerstörung). In Heidegger’s Being and Time (Sein und Zeit), Destruktion addresses the concept of time, it must be shown by successive steps the experience of time was covered by metaphysics, making us forget the original meaning of being as a temporal being. The three steps of this deconstruction will go down the history of Western Philosophy:

1.         Kant’s doctrine of schematic and time as the preliminary step of a problematic of temporality.

2.         The ontological foundation of the cogito ergo sum of Descartes and the resumption of the medieval ontology in the problematic of res cogitans.

3.         The treatise of Aristotle on time as discrimen of the phenomenal base and limits of the ancient ontology.

However, if Heidegger announces this deconstruction at the end of the Introduction to Sein und Zeit, this part of the book, which was to be, according to the plan of 1927, was never written as such. At most, we can consider his other works and conferences that partially touch upon it, starting with the book Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics, published in 1929.

4.3       DECONSTRUCTION IN DERRIDA

In reflecting on his own and recovering the notion of deconstruction, Derrida intended the meaning of a given text (essay, novel, newspaper article) is the result of the difference between the words used, rather than referring to things they represent; it is an active difference, working in the hollow sense of each word, in a manner analogous to the differential meaning of Saussurean linguistics. To mark the active nature of this difference (instead of the passive nature of the difference relative to judgments about contingent), Derrida suggests the term differance, a sort of portmanteau word combining the present participle of the verb “to differ” and “to defer”. In other words, different meanings of a text can be found by decomposing the structure of language in which it is written.

Deconstruction is not intended as a method, nor a philosophical system, but rather a practice. His detractors often accuse him of its convoluted meaning. On the day of the demise of Derrida, the New York Times, written by Jonathan Kandell, headlined thus: “abstruse theorist is dead.” Unloved and paradoxically little known in France, where deconstruction remains attached to the figure of Derrida, it has been subjected to violent attacks both in the continental Europe and in the United States of America as well. Derrida has replied to a particularly aggressive criticism of the American philosopher John Searle in his book, Limited Inc. (the book’s title is a pun on the name of the philosopher: “Inc”. is a rough translation of the French SARL).

4.4       STRUCTURALISM AND POST-STRUCTURALISM

The term “post-structuralism” refers to a critical perspective that emerged in the seventies and dethroned structuralism as the dominant figure of thought of language and text. To understand post-structuralism, it must be considered in relation to structuralism. Deconstructionist critics agreed with the poststructuralist view of language, according to which a signifier (form of a sign) does not refer to a defined signified (the content of a sign), but only to other signifiers.

Derrida opposes the centre inherent in the structuralism of the structure. With Claude Levi-Strauss as a representative of structuralist thought, Derrida shows that with the prohibition of incest, the nature/culture opposition and the universal/normative structure can no longer hold: “The incest prohibition is universal [natural], but it is also a prohibition, a system of norms and prohibitions [culture].” Derrida rejects the metaphysical history and the hierarchical dichotomies that have survived so far and on which all logical reasoning (logos, meaning speech) of the world was founded. Derrida rejects structuralism and the Saussurean schema (the relation between signifier and signified) is therefore revised. The structure that Derrida rejects is the binary opposition signifier/signified. This structure is in fact the structure of the history of thought, which conceives the world in terms of a system of oppositions leading to infinity: logos/pathos, soul/body, same/other, good/evil, culture/nature, man/woman, intelligible/sensible, inside/outside, memory/forgetfulness, speech/writing, day/night, etc.

4.5       SIGN, SIGNIFIER AND SIGNIFIED

In order to properly explain the theory of Derrida, which falls both on philosophical and semiotic framework, it is important to define the concepts that shape his thought. Given the close weaving of several of these concepts with one another and the impossibility of defining one without considering the other, each of these brings together several concepts. The relation between the signifier and the signified is no longer one of structuralism. Hence, there are two ways of erasing the difference between the signifier and the signified; the classical one consists in submitting sign to thought, the other precisely is to challenge the system in which the preceding reduction functioned starting from the opposition between the sensible and the intelligible. Note that, according to structuralism, the signifier is the sensible part of the sign, for it is grasped by the senses thus allowing us to have access to the signified. As far as the signified is concerned, it corresponds to the idea, to the immaterial and intelligible concept. It is this opposition that Derrida criticizes.  The Derridean concept of the sign is thus always linked to the structure of the Western philosophy. The direct relationship between the signifier and the signified is revisited. Let us take the example of water: While reading the word “water,” we can think of drops of water, a lake, the chemical symbol H2O, etc. We do not necessarily think of a still image of water, a universal mental representation. Thus each concept (meaning) to which the “water” may refer, sends back to another signifier. This infinite chain of signifier to signifier results in an endless game and opens the text, shifts it and makes it moving.

4.6       WRITING AND TRACE

Words refer to other words. The grammatology of Derrida proposes that writing is originary in the same way as voice, a constant tension without power struggle. Therefore writing cannot be a reproduction of the spoken language since neither came first; similarly, writing is not a simple written form of a word, but the articulation and inscription of the trace. The trace conveys the impossibility of the origin and of a centre. It is the non-origin of the origin. It is the absolute origin of sense in general. In the words of Derrida, “the trace is the differance which opens appearance [l’apparaître] and signification.” He further asserts that if it belongs to the movement of signification, then “signification is a priori written, whether inscribed or not, in one form or another, in a ‘sensible’ and ‘spatial’ element that is called ‘exterior’.” It is also significant to note that Derrida considers the trace as an arche-writing not only because it is the first possibility of spoken word but also because it is the first possibility of written word (graphie).

The concept of “graphie” depends on trace in so far as the latter is the common possibility to all communication systems. When we associate the trace with the graph (gestural, visual, pictorial, musical, verbal), the trace becomes gram (letter). Only at this point appears outside (opposite of inside), as a spatial and objective exteriority. The arche-writing of which Derrida speaks is in fact a generalized form of writing to be understood in terms of differance. This difference (the a here is the trace and the gram), as temporalization, is itself the trace of the written in the spoken word. For example, the punctuation marks are supplement to speech, and not its reproduction.

According to Derrida, the text cannot be explained by its origin source (author, society, history or context), since repetition is at the origin. The text is writing and writing is unintentional language. It is language in relation to speech that implements it. However, only reading makes the text and writing possible. What characterizes writing is textuality, which is both closure and non-closure of the text. As Derrida states in his monumental work Writing and Difference, “One can conceive of the closure of that which is without end. Closure is the circular limit within which the repetition of difference infinitely repeats itself. That is to say, closure is its playing space. This movement is the movement of the world as play.”

4.7       DECONSTRUCTION AS A STRATEGIC READING

The method of deconstruction is not negative. Deconstruction is primarily to reverse the principles of Western philosophy by emphasizing the role of margin and non-privileged, with the basic concepts under erasure in order to demonstrate how these principles were designed and their opposites, neglected. In an attempt to explain his project, Derrida remarked that an opposition of metaphysical binary concepts such as speech/writing and presence/absence is not merely an opposition but it establishes a hierarchy and an order of subordination. Derrida was interested in a particular opposition, the opposition between speech and writing. Deconstruction cannot proceed immediately to neutralization: it must – by a double gesture, a double science, a double writing – practice an overturning of the classical opposition in the system. Thus deconstruction takes place in two stages. First is the phase of reversal, since the binary pair is hierarchical, we must first destroy the exercise of power by one term of the pair over the other. Writing must take precedence over speech, the other over the same and the absence over the presence. Next comes the phase of neutralization. The binary logic and its dual thinking have to be totally uprooted. Thus the new terms become undecidable, thus making them unclassifiable and they amalgamate the two poles previously opposed.

In his essay titled “Plato's Pharmacy,” Derrida has adopted a deconstructive reading of Plato’s famous work Phaedrus, in which opposites poles meet and merge. Phaedrus recounts the myth that Theuth, the inventor of writing proposed to King Thamus writing as a remedy against forgetfulness, but the king considered writing as a poison as it kills the live memory. Thus the term pharmakon can mean both cure and poison; the same word has two opposite contexts. While Teuth uses this word in the sense of cure, the king chose the meaning of poison. Derrida in his reading of Phaedrus shows that pharmakon, both as remedy and poison, already enters into the body of speech with all its ambivalence. This charm, this virtue of fascination, can be alternately or simultaneously beneficial and harmful. It is significant that Socrates himself compares writing, the written text, to a pharmakon. “You seem to have discovered a drug for getting me out,” he says, “A hungry animal can be driven by dangling a carrot or a bit of greenstuff in front of it; similarly if you proffer me speeches bound in books I don’t doubt you can cart me all around Attica, and anywhere else you please” (Phaedrus 230d-e).

But Derrida is more concerned with this practice within a given language. What is important to him is that even in the original text Plato himself was bending the term to fit his needs, namely, stressing the caustic side of the ‘drug” in association with writing (and myth) to belittle it in the face of speech. Derrida further adds that “if the pharmakon is ambivalent, it is because it constitutes the medium in which opposites are opposed, the movement and the play that links them among themselves, reverses them or makes one side cross over into the other (soul/body, good/evil, inside/outside, memory/forgetfulness, speech/writing, etc.).” We can say that deconstruction shakes the distinctions provided by the ontology, between presence and absence, between the fullness of life and death; it focuses its attention on to leaving traces or inheritance beyond the living present of life. Derrida himself summarizes the operation of deconstruction as a rejection of the possibility of aggregation. “If totalization no longer has any meaning, it is not because the infinity of a field cannot be covered by a finite glance or a finite discourse, but because the nature of the field-that is, language and a finite language-excludes totalization.” It is finite language which excludes totalization as language is made up of infinite signifier and signified functioning inter-changeably and arbitrarily, thereby opening up possibilities for infinite play and substitution. Derrida explains this free play through the concept of supplementarity.

4.8       THE LOGIC OF SUPPLEMENT

Derrida deconstructs the hierarchy between speech and writing through the “logic of supplement.” The term “supplement” is borrowed from Rousseau, who describes writing as a supplement of speech, the latter representing the former. The natural condition of language is the speech and writing presents itself as a dangerous supplement insofar as it does violence to the natural character of language. The term “supplement” has two meanings. It can first mean an addition to something which is already sufficient in itself. But it can also mean something more to accomplish a thing incapable of self-accomplishment. If writing is a supplement to speech in the second sense, it can become dangerous. It can affect the naturalness of speech and can even supplant it.

Admittedly, Rousseau, according to Derrida, repeats the inaugural movement of Phaedrus. If the history of metaphysics is the history of the determination of being as presence, if it is intertwined with that of logocentrism and if it is understood entirely as a reduction of the trace, the Rousseau’s work seems to occupy a singular situation between the Phaedrus of Plato and the Encyclopedia of Hegel. Thought is analyzed by speech while speech is analyzed through writing. The art of writing is only a mediated representation of thought and representation is the loss of presence.

For Derrida, writing can be a supplement to speech insofar as the latter can be “supplemented,” that is to say it suffers from a lack which can be completed. Derrida explains this lack as follows: speech is not a thought fully present to the listener, but an acoustic symbol representing thought. Like in the case of writing, speech is only a mediation of thought and this is why writing can complement it. The alleged derivation of writing has been possible on one condition: that the language called “original” has ever existed, it was never touched by the writing, it was always and already writing.

Writing is indeed a “dangerous supplement,” not because it could affect the purity of speech, as Rousseau feared, but because its ability to complement speech and even supplant it shows that speech has flaws that are usually attributed to writing. Writing is a supplement to the extent that it fills a lack in speech. This is a new meaning of “dangerous supplement.” Speech itself is mediation of something and like writing, it is also a supplement. Note the important thesis of Derrida: a signifier both completes what it signifies, and adds something new to it. If speech is a supplement, what it complements must be insufficient in itself, otherwise speech cannot represent it. What is represented by speech must also be a supplement and it must signify or represent something else. The result is a chain of supplements leading to a full and self-sufficient presence. The consequence of this thesis is that in the language, there is only a chain of signifiers, each signifier pointing to another signifier.

4.9       NO OUTSIDE-TEXT

The paradox is that a sign can never represent the presence itself, as presence is self-sufficient, nor can the sign function as a signifier or supplement. What exists is a world of representations and representations of representations, ad infinitum. Each signified is also a signifier for another signified. Derrida describes the final reconstruction of presence: “there is no outside-text” [“il n’y a pas de hors-texte”]. To better understand this famous aphorism of Derrida, let us recall that, according to him, deconstructive reading is installed in the space between what the author means and what the text says of which the author himself is “taken-up” by surprise. The deconstructive reading must identify the chasm between what is said and intended meaning; this is not possible by so-called conventional and reproductive reading, which is however important, according to Derrida, to avoid any kind of interpretation: “[Without] all the instruments of traditional criticism…, critical production would risk developing in any direction and authorize itself to say almost anything.” And immediately, Derrida recognizes the inadequacy of this traditional reading despite its importance: “but this indispensable guard-rail has always only protected, never opened, a reading.”

In all Metaphysics, especially in that of Husserl and Heidegger, we may find what “exceeds” Metaphysics: the traces of before, after and outside. But such a reading requires a simultaneous passing through and transgressing Metaphysics. In this context, Derrida remarks that the only way to be faithful to a tradition and to keep it alive is to transgress it. In other words, to keep a tradition alive, we should not be faithful to it to the point of reproducing it mechanically. We must keep alive the possibility of reading otherwise, to explore through conventional requirements without abandoning them, whatever they exclude, marginalize and forget. Deconstructive reading transgresses this guardrail. This transgression is a passage to limits and to frontiers, but it evades a transcendental signified which would be outside text and beyond history; it remains always and already embedded in social, political and historical networks, which Derrida calls “arche-text” and sometimes simply “text.”

In this context, the adage “there is no outside text” means that there is no reference without difference, that is, without the use of a differential system. “There is no outside-text” does not mean that there is nothing outside of words, or that everything can be reduced to linguistic concepts. In the words of Derrida: “I never ceased to be surprised by critics who see my work as a declaration that there is nothing beyond language, that we are imprisoned in language; it is, in fact, saying the exact opposite. The critique of logocentrism is above else the search for the ‘other’ and the other of language.” In his epilogue to Limited Inc., Derrida once again resumes his definition of text: “I wanted to recall that the concept of text I propose is limited neither to the graphic, nor to the book, nor even to discourse, and even less to the semantic, representational, symbolic, ideal, or ideological sphere. What I call ‘text’ implies all the structures called ‘real,’ ‘economic,’ ‘historical,’ ‘socio-institutional,’ in short: all possible referents. Another way of recalling once again that ‘there is nothing outside the text’ ... It does mean that every referent, all reality has the structure of a differential trace, and that one cannot refer to this ‘real’ except in an interpretive experience. The latter neither yields meaning nor assumes it except in a movement of differential referring.”

4.10     DIFFERANCE

The term differance was coined by Derrida when he gave a lecture in 1968 to the French Society of Philosophy. In itself, it represents a synthesis of philosophical and semiotic thought of Derrida. All concepts defined earlier are involved in this theory. The grapheme a points to several aspects of the practice of this theory:

1.         Differance is the difference that pulls down the cult of identity and dominance of the same over the other; it means there is no origin or more precisely originary unity). To differ is not to be identical.

2.         Differance mark a difference in spelling, written by a instead of e; we see this difference, but we cannot hear it.

3.         Differance evokes the meaning of displacing, eluding and shifting.

4.         Differance is a future in progress (struggle against the fixed meanings); it is the displacement of signifiers which signify the margins because there is no original and organized transcendental signified.

The writing of differance refers to itself as it breaks away from the concepts of signified and referent. The emphasis of the theme of writing works as an antidote against idealism, metaphysics and ontology.

4.11     LET US SUM UP

A deconstructionist approach allows us to create a constant tension between dualisms in any binary opposition, bringing the two poles of the pair to an equal footing. Thus meanings of words become undecidable so as to go beyond binary thinking. This theory is adopted by literary writers, including feminists, who, by the deconstructionist approach and through the strategy of differance, give rise to new terms that go beyond the dualisms in general but more specifically beyond the opposition such as man/woman, self/other and pathos/logos.

To deconstruct, is to go beyond all rigid conceptual oppositions (masculine/ feminine, nature/culture, subject/object, sensible/intelligible, past/present, etc.) and not to deal with these concepts as if they were opposed to each other. Each pole in the binary carries within it, the trace of the opposite pole. Thus for example, the androgynous person bears traces both of masculine and feminine, the inclusion of the observer in a scientific experiment in pursuit of its objective purpose, and the law of might, which governs the nature reverberate in organizations and social structures.

4.12 KEY WORDS

Differance: Differance is a play on the French ‘differer,’ which means both “to defer” and “to differ.” Derrida uses both of these meanings to describe his concept. With words, Derrida suggests, the meaning is always “deferred” as a single word cannot give a complete description. A word needs other words to give it context; therefore its meaning is deferred until more information is given.

Trace: According to Derrida, there is no true meaning of all human words (and even human thoughts). The meaning of any word can only be expressed compared to other words. What every word contains within itself is only shadows of other related words, which Derrida calls trace.

Graphie: written form of a word.

Pharmakon: It meant both the disease and its cure to the ancient Greeks. It also means both medicine and poison and from which we get “pharmacy” and “pharmaceutical.”

Logocentrism: It is a term used by Derrida and other exponents of deconstruction to designate the desire for a centre or original guarantee of all meanings, which in Derrida’s view has characterized Western philosophy since Plato. The Greek word logos can just mean “word,” but in philosophy it often denotes an ultimate principle of truth or reason, while in Christian theology it refers to the Word of God as the origin and foundation of all things. Derrida's critique of logocentric thinking shows how it attempts to repress difference in favour of identity and presence: the philosophical “metaphysics of presence” craves a “transcendental signified” ultimately self-sufficient meaning (e.g. God, Man, Truth). The most significant case of logocentrism is the enduring phonocentrism that privileges speech over writing because speech is held to guarantee the full ‘presence’ and integrity of meaning.

Block 4: Methodology of Preparing Research Paper

UNIT 1           METHOD OF BIBLIOGRAPHY

Contents

1.0       Objectives

1.1.      Introduction

1.2       Preparing to Write

1.3       Writing a Paper

1.4       The Main Divisions of a Paper

1.5       Writing Bibliography in Turabian and APA

1.6       Sample Bibliography

1.7       Let us Sum up

1.8       Key Words

1.9       Further Readings and References

1.0 OBJECTIVES

•           To study basic human quest for unity that has given rise to philosophy, religion and science.

•           To trace the origin of human knowledge to our quest for understanding: the self, world and God.

1.1       INTRODUCTION

In this unit we attempt to offer preliminary remarks on writing a research paper and on preparing a proper bibliography.

1.2       PREPARING TO WRITE

CHOOSING A TOPIC

Preliminary Remarks

•           The purpose of a research paper is to explore an idea or probe an issue with the help of available resources in the library.

•           Make a statement of thesis which states clearly the area of your research and defines the scope of your paper.

•           The findings of the research have to be clearly and coherently presented in an accepted scientific format.

•           A research paper pays attention both to the content as well as to the style of presentation.

Content

•           Choose a definite, specific subject.

•           The subject must be of interest to your readers.

•           It should neither be too broad nor too specific

•           It must be within the limits of time and the length of paper.

•           It must have necessary sources available.

•           The sources available should neither be too vast nor too little.

•           It can be author-based or theme-based.

•           Make sure you have a competent guide available to you.

style of presentation

Different disciplines adopt different styles.

We proposes two styles of presentation (Chicago Style & APA).

You are free to choose one of these but be consistent.

PREPARING A BIBLIOGRAPHY

Preliminary Remarks

•           Identify books and articles related to the research. This can be done through browsing the latest edition of encyclopedias on the subject matter or using search engine on the internet.

•           Make sure that these books and articles are available to you either in the JDV Library or in any institutions near-by where you can access them.

•           Author-based research calls for a distinction between primary and secondary sources.

•           You can also include online sources provided they are of academic standard.

Keeping Record of the Sources

•           Use separate card (6” x 4”) for entering then bibliographic information of each work whether book or article.

•           Choose the most recent edition and the best translation if choices are available in the library.

•           Note down the complete and precise references of books and articles from the start in the card including the shelf where they can be located.

•           Arrange the cards in alphabetical order according to the surname of the author. If the study is author-based, then maintain two sets of cards – one for primary sources and the other for secondary sources. Arrange the secondary sources in alphabetical order according to the surname of the author.

•           Eventually, you will transform this into your bibliography.

Necessary Data for a Book

Name of the Library

Call number

Author – Surname followed by given name(s)

Title of the Book in italics

Details of Publication

Personal Remarks

Specimen Bibliography Card for a Book

JDV Library

DO-254-W3

Welsch, David

Nazi Propaganda: The Power and the Limitations

London: Croom Helm, 1983

(This books seems to have 2 particularly useful chapters)

Necessary Data for an Essay from an Edited Work

Name of the Library

Call Number

Name of the Edited Work in italics

Editor – First name followed by the surname

Author – Surname followed by given name(s)

Title of the Article in double quotes with exact page numbers

Details of Publication

Personal Remarks

Specimen Card for an Article from a Journal

Name of the Library

Name of the Journal in italics

Author – Surname followed by given name(s)

Title of the Article in double quotes with exact page numbers

Details of Publication including volume and number if any

Personal Remarks

PREPARING  NOTES FOR BIBLIOGRAPHY

Preliminary Remarks

•           Prepare a separate dossier for each of the work

•           Prepare a set of cards to note down citations which you think you would quote in your paper

•           You need to practice the art of omission though you may be tempted to take down everything

•           Equip yourself with techniques like précis writing and paraphrasing.

•           Avoid reproducing the words of the author instead try to employ your own words.

•           Remember to note down only those citations which you think cannot be said otherwise.

General Tips

•           Read primary sources carefully and secondary sources rapidly, if it is an author-based research.

•           Begin reading from the book/article recently published on the theme or of the author if it is an author-based study.

•           Look for striking ideas pertaining to the subject.

•           Summarize the ideas accurately.

•           Take notes accurately by giving reference to the exact page, work, and edition.

•           For passages taken verbatim to be quoted in the text, use standard cards and give exact reference and organize them thematically.

•           For the summary, use the A4 size paper divided into three unequal parts: the left side for the summary idea of the author, right side for your comments and observations, and the bottom for technical words and cross-reference to the card.

Tips for Personal Critical Comments

•           Identifying arguments and conclusions

•           Identifying implications of arguments

•           Identifying Assumptions

•           Evaluating the truth of reasons and assumptions

•           Evaluating support for conclusions

Identifying Arguments and Conclusions

•           To identify reasoning, we need to look for indicator words in the conclusion. Some indicator words to be sought in the concluding statement are “should,” “must,” “it is evident,” “obviously,” “so,” “thus,” “hence” and “therefore.” Example: “He must be older than 42; he has a daughter who is 39 years old.”

•           When indicator words are absent, look for relationship between statements in a passage. Example: Knowing the dangers of smoking is not sufficient to stop people from smoking. Everybody knows that smoking causes lung cancer and heart disease. One third of the population still smokes.

•           When there is no conclusion in the passage, then it does not contain an argument.

Identifying Implications of Arguments

•           This involves either of the two skills: parallel arguments and applying principles. Parallel arguments from a known domain help us to find the flaw in the argument. Applying principles calls for consistency in reasoning and its consequence in all similar situations.

•           The argument is faulty if an example from a known domain with parallel structures of argument can be shown to be faulty. Example:

o          Original argument: We have all had the experience of being deceived by our senses – the stick which looks bent when it is straight – and all the information we get through our senses is potentially illusory, therefore sense experience is always unreliable.

o          Parallel argument: We have all had the experience of being lied to – that even lovers lie – and that everyone is potentially a liar, therefore no one is trustworthy.

•           Application of principles to other cases may show us that the principle needs to be modified or rejected. Example: “Killing is wrong.” this principle implies that the killing in self-defense is wrong. If we are convinced that killing in self-defense is not wrong then the original principle has to undergo modification.

Identifying Assumptions

•           There are two types of assumptions: Assumptions underlying basic reasons and Assumptions as unstated conclusion.

•           Assumptions underlying basic reasons: The reason provided for an argument is based on an assumption, that is, no empirical study or any study beyond disproof as has established this as a fact. Example: The number of accidents will reduce when strict measures of penalties and punishments are deployed by the government. The underlying assumption is better enforcement of law is directly related to the decrease in the number of accidents. Without any proof, this claim that the reason for the high number of accidents is lack of proper enforcement of law.

•           Assumptions as unstated conclusions: A conclusion based on potentially disputable premises can be called assumptions as unstated consequences. Example: the burglar must have left by the fire escape. This person is not in the building now, but has not been seen leaving the building, and there are guards posted at each entrance. The conclusion is that the burglar must have left the fireplace, but the premises are still disputable. It is likely that the guards were not sufficiently watchful.

Evaluating the Truth of Reasons and Assumptions

•           The authority of the person in the subject in question

•           Factors that can possibly distort the accuracy of the person’s judgments

•           Other sources either corroborating or contradicting the person’s position.

Evaluating Support for Conclusions

•           Every conclusion is supported by reason or reasons. Conclusion may state a supposed fact (it is dangerous to drive a car after drinking alcohol) or make a recommendation (you ought not to drive your car). Some arguments introduce their conclusion with “so” or “therefore.” A conclusion need not be the last statement in the argument. Example: “You have to take a Happitum travel sickness pill when you go on the ferry. They are very effective against sea-sickness, and you have always been sick in the past when you have travelled by sea.”

•           One way of identifying faulty reasoning is through the use of the principle “some does not imply all.” Example: Some people say that the depiction of violence on television has no effect on viewers' behaviour. However, if what was shown on television did not affect behaviour, television advertising would never influence viewers to buy certain products. But we know that it does. So it cannot be true that television violence does not affect behaviour. Faulty reasoning: The fact that advertising shown on television affects viewers’ behaviour is not a good reason for accepting that everything on television affects viewers’ behaviour.

•           Another way of identifying faulty reasoning is the lack of sufficient evidence. If people became healthier as the affluence of the country increased, we would expect the population to be healthier now than it was thirty years ago. But over the last thirty years new illnesses, such as chronic fatigue syndrome, have appeared, and we have become more vulnerable to old diseases such as heart disease and cancer. So the increased wealth of the country has not produced improvement in the health of the population. Faulty reasoning: Even if some new diseases have appeared and old diseases have become more common during the last thirty years, it does not follow that the population is less healthy than it was thirty years ago, because people may have long periods of good health before suffering from these diseases.

•           A third way of identifying faulty reasoning is by verifying if correlation is equated with cause. In the above stated example, claiming that increased affluence had produced an improvement in the health of the population, the argument has flawed because it assured that because two things have occurred together, one has caused the other, and because it failed to consider other possible causes of the improvements in the health of the population.

MAKING AN OUTLINE

Preliminary Remarks

•           After the notes are taken carefully, read them to get a bird’s-eye view of the material. Then, as a first step towards writing the paper, prepare an outline.

•           Include the important questions you want to address and the main divisions you want to make. This helps avoiding materials that, though interesting, are irrelevant to your paper, but also focus on materials that are relevant.

•           The outline divides the points into various groups, co-ordinates the main points, subordinates the sub-points, and discards trivia.

•           Look for a general structure. Arrange your ideas and notes according to this structure, looking for order, progress, and forcefulness.

Illogical versus Logical Coordination

•           Take care to avoid illogical coordination. This can be done by coordinating items only of the same logical category.

•           The following gives the examples both of improper and proper coordination:

Illogical

Sartre

Existentialism

Phenomenology

Derrida            Logical

Husserl

Heidegger

Levinas

Derrida

Improper versus Proper Subordination

•           Avoid improper subordination. Improper subordination consists in placing a topic under the wrong heading or putting a main point in a subordinate position.

•           The following gives the examples both of improper and proper subordination:

Improper

Schools of Thought

Existentialism

Phenomenology

Ferdinand de Saussure

            Proper

Schools of Thought

Existentialism

Phenomenology

Structuralism

Subdivision

•           Avoid single subdivision. To divide you always need at least two parts. This means, there can never be an “A” without a “B,” a “1” without “2,” an “a” without a “b.” For an enumeration having several subdivisions, one of the following schemes or notation and indentation could be used.

•           Scheme 1

I. Main heading

   A. Subheading (level 1)

       1. Subheading (level 2)

           a. Subheading (level 3)

               i. Subheading (level 4)

              ii. Subheading (level 4)

            b. Subheading (level 3)

        1. Subheading (level 2)

   B. Subheading (level 1)

II. Main heading

•           Scheme 2

1. Title

    1.1 Subtitle

        1.1.1 Subtitle

        1.1.2 Subtitle

    1.2 Subtitle

       1.1.1 Subtitle

       1.1. 2 Subtitle

1. Title

   1.1 Subtitle

      1.1.1 Subtitle

      1.1.2 Subtitle

   1.2 Subtitle

1.3       WRITING A PAPER

GENERAL REGULATIONS

Introductory Remarks

•           The paper must be clear, concise, accurate, well organized, and neat.

•           To achieve these, pay attention to the size and quality of the paper, the format, the language, and the style.

•           Print out dissertation on standard-sized white paper (A4).

•           As a general rule, use 1.5 line space) throughout the paper, except footnotes, bibliography and indented quotations.

•           Set the margins of your document to 1 inch on all sides. If it is a long thesis, increase the left margin by ½ inch.

•           Keep in mind your reader. Imagine that you are writing for a fellow student who is familiar with your discipline but does not know your area.

•           Use simple wording, short paragraphs, and active voice, if possible.

•           Vary sentence lengths.

•           Use gender-neutral or inclusive language, avoiding such gimmicks as using he/she, but recasting sentences to achieve invisible gender neutrality.

•           Avoid negatives, especially double negatives. Write, for example, uncommon instead of not common and known instead of not unknown.

•           Place sequences in order (Avoid: “Before giving our critical comments, we shall discuss the salient features of Derrida’s deconstruction.” Say: “We shall discuss the salient features of Derrida’s deconstruction before giving our critical comments.”

Indentation

•           Indent the first line of paragraphs.

•           Indent the footnotes five spaces form the left-hand margin.

•           Items in the Reference/Works Cited list use hanging indent, i.e., they have first line with the left-hand margin while the following lines are indented five spaces (or 0.5”).

•           Long quotations (more than 5 typed lines) are indented spaces (or 0.5”) either only in the left or on both sides without quotation marks.

Pagination

•           Short Paper: Using Arabic numerals, number all pages including the title page. You may choose not to show the page number on the title page (first page).

•           Long Dissertation: All pages before the first page of Introduction one are numbered in small roman numerals (i, ii, iii, etc.). Beginning from the first page of Introduction, all pages have Arabic numbers consecutively to the end of the paper, including bibliography and appendixes.

•           For both short papers and long dissertations, numbers are placed uniformly either at the top right, or at the bottom right, or at the bottom center of the page.

Label Visuals

•           Label each visual (i.e., tables, figures, etc.) with an Arabic numeral (Table 1, Figure 1, and so on) and provide a clear title that identifies the subject.

•           For each table, the label and title should appear on the same line above the table.

•           For each figure, place the label and the caption on the same line below the figure. The word “Figure” may be abbreviated to “Fig.”

•           If there is a source for the table or the figure, you may either give a footnote at the end of the title/caption or you may choose to mention the source directly below the table or the figure.

STEPS IN WRITING

First Draft

•           Follow your outline and write the full text carefully.

•           Do not copy long quotations, but note their place in the paper and mark the reference.

•           Keep writing without searching for the perfect word or phrase, but pay attention to the logic and the coherence of thought.

•           Incorporate good passages from other writers.

•           Limit your scope and exclude everything irrelevant.

•           Show this draft, prepared in double-space, to your guide or friends for comments and criticism.

Second Draft

•           Respond to criticisms and incorporate suggestions and corrections.

•           Look for the appropriate words/phrases and accurate expressions, using a thesaurus.

•           Add emphasis to important points and avoid irrelevant and unimportant materials.

•           Show this copy, typed in double-space, to your guide to get further suggestions and corrections.

Final Draft

•           Once again, answer criticisms and incorporate suggestions and corrections.

•           Improve accuracy, clarity, forcefulness and readability.

•           Change language style by using simpler wording, shorter sentences and paragraphs, active rather than passive voice, substituting positives for negatives, writing sequences in order.

•           Prepare a precise introduction and a well thought out conclusion.

•           Prepare a list of reference, appendix and index before generating the table of contents.

•           Prepare a title page in the prescribed scientific format.

•           Proofread your paper. Check spelling grammar, punctuation and the logical development of ideas. Go through carefully the citations, foot-notes and the reference.

•           Submit the final draft to your guide and incorporate his/her suggestions for the improvisation of your paper.

1.4       THE MAIN DIVISIONS OF A PAPER

Overview

•           Your paper may not have all these divisions, but whatever parts it has, will follow in this order: Title Page, Acknowledgement, Table of Contents, Introduction, Main Body of the Text, Conclusion, Reference, Appendix, Index

Title Page for a Short Paper

•           Do not make a title page for a short paper unless specifically requested.

•           In the top left corner of the first page list your name, roll number, your instructor’s name, the course name followed by the code, and the date (only month and year). Do not use any punctuation after any of these entries.

•           Begin your paper immediately after these entries with your title and subtitle (if there is one) centered and the title bolded.

•           Do not use any punctuation mark after the title. A question mark or an exclamation mark may be used after the title only when necessary and appropriate.

•           Begin pagination from the first page though you may choose to make the page number invisible on this page.

Sample First Page for a Short paper

Rahul Gupta

09021

Dr. Nishant A. Irudayadason

PH 14 Hermeneutics

December 2010

Understanding as a Mode of Being

The Significance of Heidegger’s Ontological Hermeneutics

            With the publication of Heidegger’s Being and Time, the scope of hermeneutics has gone beyond Schleiermacher and Dilthey. While for Schleiermacher, hermeneutics is primarily an art of divining the mind of the author…

Title Page for a Long Dissertation

•           Make the separate title page for a long paper (dissertation or thesis having chapter divisions) and arrange the entries centered between margins in the following order.

o          The main title of your paper followed by the subtitle, if any (Only the main title may be capitalized and bolded).

o          Your name followed by your roll number

o          Your Guide’s name prefixed by his designation

o          The purpose of the paper

o          The date of submission (only the month and the year)

o          The name of the institution followed by the name of the city (with pin code)

•           The line spacing shall be set for 1.5 for the entire title page. Between each entry give 5 space by giving the enter command on the keyboard.

•           Keep the same font type and size as in the body the paper.

•           As a rule the first letter of all the words in the title page will be in capitals except if the word is an article or a preposition.

Acknowledgement

•           Acknowledgement normally follows the title page and precedes the table of contents.

•           The page number on this page shall follow the page number of the title page in Roman numerals.

•           Avoid exaggeration and flowery words.

•           Make sure to acknowledge your thesis guide, other professors and the library staff.

•           You may also include your family, friends, bishop/superior, community where you live, etc. in the order that seems most appropriate for you.

Table of Contents

•           It should include all divisions that precede it and follow it except the title page.

•           Roman small numerals are given for the divisions that precede it and Arabic numerals are given to divisions that follow it.

•           It can be generated automatically in MS Word. In order to do so, the different levels are headings are to be defined correctly.

•           Generate the Table of Contents only just before taking the print of the final copy because any change made after may result in the indication of wrong page numbers.

•           Before taking the print out, type in title case “Table of Contents” or merely “Contents,” and center this heading.

Introduction

•           Introduction is written after having completed the body of the text.

•           It introduces the topic undertaken for the study and spells out the reason for undertaking this study.

•           It will also speak of the different methods employed for the study.

•           It will seek to justify why the chapters are divided the way they are divided, thus offering a justification for thematic coherence.

•           If it is a long dissertation the Introduction will run through a few pages.

•           The page number in Arabic numerals begins with the first page of the Introduction, which will continue till the last page of the paper.

Main Body of the Text

•           The text should contain everything necessary for a reader to understand the author’s views.

•           Longer papers (dissertation or thesis) are divided into numbered chapters.

•           Begin each chapter on a new page.

•           The length of the chapter may vary as each chapter is a thematically unity.

•           Short titles are preferable. The title of the chapters should bring out the theme. Center the title of the chapter below the chapter number.

•           It is preferable not to have more than three levels of subtitles.

•           Do not use full stop, comma or semicolon after titles or subtitles. A colon may be used to separate the subtitle form the title. Use an exclamation mark or question mark if the title requires it.

 Use of Numerals

•           Spell out numbers written in one or two words and represent other numbers by numerals (one, thirty-two, fifteen hundred, two million, but 2 1/2; 102, 275).

•           Spell out the number if the sentences begin with a number.

•           Fractions and compound numbers below one hundred should be hyphenated (one-third, thirty-six).

•           For large numbers you may use a combination of numerals and words (4.5 million, 2 trillion).

•           Express related numbers in the same style (5 of the 250 delegates; from 1 billion to 1.2 billion; 115 feet by 90 feet (or 115’x 90’) but not five out of 250 delegates; one billion to 1.2 billion.

•           If you project calls for frequent use of numbers (a paper on scientific matters or a paper involving statistics), use numerals for all numbers connected with statistics or scientific data.

•           Always use numerals for the following:

o          With abbreviations or symbols (6 lbs., 4:29 p.m. (or P.M.), $9, 3%, 4”)

o          In address ( 201 lattice bridge road)

o          In dates (1 April 1993)

o          In decimal fractions (3.5, 7.8)

o          In page or volume references (page 16, volume 6).

•           Numbers and letters occurring in enumeration in the text are enclosed in parentheses. For example, (1), (a). When each item in an enumeration begins a new line or paragraph, numerals or letters may be followed by a right parenthesis. For example, 11)

•           For an enumeration without subdivisions, Arabic numerals followed by full stops are preferred; the full stops are always aligned.

•           Use capitals of roman numerals for individuals in a series (Henry VI, Pope Benedict XVI).

•           Large round numbers may be written as follows: Four billion dollars (or $4 billion); 16, 500, 000 (or 16.5million.)

•           Regardless of the original source, numbers referring to the following are given in Arabic Numerals:

o          Pages

o          Divisions of a book (Volume, Parts, Chapters, Act, Scene)

o          Illustrations, tables, or figures

•           In documentation you may use appropriate abbreviations for the divisions of the book (p. 30, vol. 2, Ch. 5, Fig. 3).

•           In footnotes, indexes, etc., where page range is to be shown, follow the convention given below:

o          Full numbers to be given for numbers through 99 (p. 78-83).

o          For larger numbers, give only the last two figures if it is in the same hundred (pp. 102-10; 1997-98).

o          If it is in another hundred, add more figures as needed (1497-506; 1996-2003).

•           Use a combination of figures and words for numbers when such a combination will keep you writing clear:

o          Unclear: The club celebrated the birthdays of 6 90yrs- olds who were born in the city. (This may cause the reader to read 690 as one number.)

o          Clear: The club celebrated the birthdays of six 90-year- olds who were born in the city.

•           Regarding the use of date, there are differences between British and American English.

•           The following table shows some typical formats. Whichever format you choose, be consistent.

•           The common way of referring to years is as follows: 1066 CE, 1900 BCE, 1971-72 or 1971-1972, the eighties or the 1980’s or the 1980s.

•           Spell out centuries in lower case letters (twentieth century). Hyphenate if it is used as an adjective (twentieth-century thought nineteenth and twentieth-century writings).

•           Time may be written as follows: 8:00 AM (or a.m.); eight o’clock in the morning; 4:30 PM (or p.m.); half-past four in the afternoon; 12:00 noon; 12:00 midnight.

•           Residence numbers in addresses are written thus: 16 Tenth Street; 350 West Street.

•           In abbreviating, always use accepted forms. In appropriate contexts, you may abbreviate, keeping in mind clarity. Spell out the term if the abbreviation may puzzle the readers.

Conclusion

•           In a long dissertation, the conclusion will run through a few pages.

•           It highlights the finding of your study, relating to the questions you have raised in your introduction.

•           It also specifies other issues resulted from your study, which open up the possibility for further research.

•           Though it brings together the loose ends of the paper, it is not meant to be a summary of the preceding chapters.

•           Finally, the conclusion is not conclusive. This means that you do not seek to offer dogmatic proofs to the question(s) under investigation. Nor do you pretend that you have resolved the issue once and for all. Protect yourself from intellectual dogmatism.

Reference

•           Reference should contain all the cited either directly quoting a passage or giving a summary idea of the work. It does not include works related to the subject matter, which you have not made use of.

•           It is usually arranged in alphabetical order according to the surname (last name) of the author.

•           If your study is author-based, then you may divide your reference into Primary Sources (referring to the works of the author) and Secondary Sources.

•           No other classification such as books, articles, etc., is allowed.

•           Encyclopaedia and dictionaries do not feature in the reference.

•           Religious books like Bible, Koran and Bhagavad-gita are not included in the reference unless the study is made on a section of these religious works and you want to mention the different versions and translations you have made use of in your study.

Appendix

•           An appendix may include explanations and elaborations that are not essential parts of the text, but helpful to the reader.

•           This may include the following:

o          Documents

o          Survey questionnaires

o          Charts

o          Tables

o          Illustrations

o          Images

Index

•           The index begins on a recto (i.e., page on the right side of an open book).

•           If there are both name and subject indexes, the name index precedes the subject index.

•           Indexes are normally set two columns to a page and in smaller type than the text.

1.5       WRITING BIBLIOGRAPHY IN TURABIAN AND APA STYLES

Here we deal with two main styles for taking bibliography which is a must for any academic articles or books. "Turabian style" is named after the book's original author, Kate L. Turabian, who developed it for the University of Chicago. Except for a few minor differences, Turabian style is the same as The Chicago Manual of Style. However, while The Chicago Manual of Style focuses on providing guidelines for publishing in general, Turabian's Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations focuses on providing guidelines for student papers, theses and dissertations.

American Psychological Association (APA) Style is a set of rules developed to assist reading comprehension in the social and behavioral sciences. Designed to ensure clarity of communication, the rules are designed to "move the idea forward with a minimum of distraction and a maximum of precision." It is the most often used style in science.

Introductory Remarks

•           Typically Chicago papers include a bibliography, an alphabetically arranged list of cited or consulted works. This list should not include books that have not seen or consulted, just to make an impression.

•           Start the bibliography on a new page, and center the title “Bibliography” about one inch from the top of the page. Number the bibliography pages consecutively with the rest of the paper.

•           Invert the name of the authors (last name followed by first), and alphabetize the bibliography by the last names of the authors (or editors, compilers, or translators). When a work has no author or editor, alphabetize by the first word of the title other than the articles a, an, or the.

Book: Single Author

•           A single-author entry precedes a multi author entry beginning with same name.

Turabian

Borradori, Giovanna. Philosophy in a Time of Terror. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2003.

American Psychological Association

Borradori, G. (2003). Philosophy in a Time of Terror. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Book: Many Authors

•           In a double-author entry, only the first author’s name is inverted (Coleman, A.E.; Coleman, A.E. and Richard Northwood).

Turabian

Kofman, Amy Ziering and Kirby Dick. Derrida. New York: Zeitgeist Video, 2003.

American Psychological Association

Kofman, A. Z., & Dick, K. (2003). Derrida. New York: Zeitgeist Video.

One Author and One Translator

Turabian

Bataille, Georges. Inner Experience. Translated by Leslie-Anne Boldt. New York: SUNY Books, 1988.

American Psychological Association

Bataille, G. (1988). Inner Experience. (Leslie-Anne Boldt. Trans.). New York: SUNY Books. (Original work published 1943).

One Author and Many Translators

Turabian

Derrida, Jacques. Memoires: For Paul de Man. Translated by Cecile Lindsay, Jonathan Culler and Eduaro Cadava. New York: Columbia University Press, 1989.

American Psychological Association

Derrida, J. (1989). Memoires: For Paul de Man, (C. Lindsay, J. Culler & E. Cadava, Trans.). New York: Columbia University Press. (Original work published 1988).

One Author One Editor

Turabian

Derrida, Jacques. Acts of Religion. Edited by Gil Anidjar. London: Routledge, 2001.

American Psychological Association

Derrida, J. (2001). Acts of Religion. G. Anidjar, (Ed.). London: Routledge.

Editor or Compiler as Author

Turabian

Harvey, Irene, ed. The Purloined Poe: Lacan, Derrida, and Psychoanalytic Reading. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1988.

American Psychological Association

Harvey, I. (Ed.). (1988). The Purloined Poe: Lacan, Derrida, and Psychoanalytic Reading.Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.

 

Single Author: Essay/Article in an Edited Work

Turabian

Bennington, Geoffrey. “Mosaic Fragment, if Derrida were an Egyptian,” in Derrida: A Critical Reader. Edited by David Wood, 97-139. Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1991.

American Psychological Association

Bennington, G. (1992). Mosaic Fragment, if Derrida were an Egyptian. In David Wood (Ed.), Derrida: A Critical Reader (97-139). Massachusetts: Blackwell.

Article in a Journal

Turabian

Abrams, Meyer H. “The Deconstructive Angel,” Critical Inquiry 3 (December 1977): 425-438.

American Psychological Association

Abrams, M. H. (1977). The Deconstructive Angel. Critical Inquiry, 3, 425-438.

1.6       SAMPLE BIBLIOGRAPHY

Attridge, Derek. (ed.). Derrida: Acts of Literature, New York: Routledge, 1991.

Caputo, John D. Deconstruction in a Nutshell, New York: Fordham University Press, 1997.

Caputo, John D. The Prayers and Tears of Jacques Derrida, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997.

Critchley, Simon. The Ethics of Deconstruction: Derrida and Levinas, Oxford: Blackwell, 1991.

Culler, Jonathan. On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism, New York: Cornell University Press, 1983.

Derrida, Jacques. Adieu à Emmanuel Lévinas, Paris: Galilée, 1997.

_____. Donner la mort, Paris: Galilée, 1999.

_____. “Différance,” trans. Alan Bass, in Critical Theory since 1965, ed. Hazard Adams & Leroy Searle Tallahassee: Florida State University Press, 1986.

_____. “Plato’s Pharmacy,” in Dissemination, trans. Barbara Johnson, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981.

_____. Margins of Philosophy, trans. Alan Bass, Chigago: University of Chicago Press, 1981.

_____. Of Grammatology, trans. GayatriChakravortySpivak, Baltimore: John Hopkins University press, 1976.

_____. Positions, trans. Alan Bass, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981.

_____. Specters of Marx, trans. PaggyKamuf, New York: Routledge, 1994.

_____. Speech and Phenomena, trans. David B. Allison, Evanston: North-western University Press, 1973.

_____. “Hospitality, Justice, and Responsibility: A Dialogue with Jacques Derrida,” in Questioning Ethics: Contemporary Debates in Philosophy, ed. Richard Kearney and Mark Dooley, New York: Routledge, 1999.

Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983.

Greisch, Jean. Herméneutique et Grammatologie, Paris: CNRS, 1977.

Heidegger, Martin. Einführung in die Metaphysik, Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1966.

Kearney, Richard. “Deconstruction and the Other: Dialogue with Derrida,” in Dialogue with Contemporary Continental Thinkers: The Phenomenological Heritage, Manchester: Manchester University press, 1984.

Levinas, Emmanuel. Totalité et infini: Essai sur l’extériorité, Paris: Kluwer Academic, 1971.

_____. Ethics and Infinity, trans. Richard A. Cohen, Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1985.

Sarup, Madan. An Introductory Guide to Post-structuralism and Postmodernism, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1993.

Wood, David. The Deconstruction of Time, Atlantic Highlands: Humanities Press International, 1989.

1.7       LET US SUM UP

In this unit we saw the general guides on writing a paper and saw the main divisions of a paper. Then we took up the issue of writing a bibliography, specifically using Turabian and APA styles.

1.8       KEY WORDS

APA: American Psychological Association (APA) Style is a set of rules developed to assist reading comprehension in the social and behavioral sciences. Designed to ensure clarity of communication, the rules are designed to "move the idea forward with a minimum of distraction and a maximum of precision." It is the most often used style in science.

Recto: A right-hand page of a book or the front side of a leaf, on the other side of the verso.

UNIT 2           METHOD OF FOOTNOTES

Contents

            2.0       Objectives

            2.1       Introduction

            2.2       Citations and Notes

            2.3       General Hints for Footnotes

            2.4       Writing Footnotes

            2.5       Examples of Footnote or Endnote

            2.6       Examples of a Research Article

            2.7       Let us Sum up

            2.8       Key Words

2.9       Further Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTIVES

•           To study the main points in taking footnotes or endnotes.

•           To be able to write a scientific paper with proper footnotes and bibliography

2.1 INTRODUCTION

After having seen the method of taking bibliography in the previous unit, we are in a position to see the main points in writing footnotes. We begin by making a general distinction between citation, footnotes and endnotes. Then we proceed to follow the rules to write proper footnotes.

2.2 CITATIONS AND NOTES

Generally it is said, a citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source. More precisely, a citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric expression,  e.g. (Pandikattu 1998), which is embedded in the body of the text that denotes an entry in the bibliographic references section of the work, in order to acknowledge the works of other authors. Generally the combination of both the in-body citation and the bibliographic entry constitutes what is commonly thought of as a citation. It may be noted that bibliographic entries given at the end of the text do not constitute citation and acknowledgement of the sources the author is indebted to. A prime purpose of a citation is intellectual honesty; to attribute to other authors the ideas they have previously expressed, rather than give the appearance to the work's readers that the work's authors are the original  and he or she alone is responsible for the ideas in the book.

The forms of citations generally subscribe to one of the generally accepted citations systems, such as the Harvard, MLA, American Sociological Association (ASA), American Psychological Association (APA), and other citations systems, as their syntactic conventions are widely known and easily interpreted by readers. Each of these citation systems has its respective advantages and disadvantages relative to the trade-offs of being informative (but not too disruptive) and thus should be chosen relative to the needs of the type of publication being crafted. Editors will often specify the citation system to use (Wikipedia 2010).  Bibliographies, and other list-like compilations of references, are generally not considered citations because they do not fulfill the true spirit of the term: deliberate acknowledgment by other authors of the priority of one's ideas.  Footnotes and Endnotes are more detailed forms of citations. They are used to give credit to sources of any material borrowed, summarized or paraphrased. They are intended to refer readers to the exact pages of the works listed in the Works Cited, References, or Bibliography section.

The main difference between Footnotes and Endnotes is that Footnotes are placed numerically at the foot (end) of the very same page where direct references are made, while Endnotes are placed numerically at the end of the essay on a separate page entitled Endnotes or Notes. It is much easier to refer to footnotes, but endnotes does not disturb the smooth flow of the text in an article. If you are still using a typewriter, a superscript number is typed half a space above the line after the last word of the citation, e.g., "The Information Superhighway is giving way to a Commercial Superhighway."1 If you are using a word processor, you can access the superscript function. To type a Footnote citation, the same superscript number is put at the beginning of the Footnote at the bottom of the same page where the citation occurs. In word process this step is easy, since it takes place automatically.

When mentioning a work for the first time, a full and complete Footnote or Endnote entry must be made. When the same work is mentioned later, the full details need not be repeated.

2.3 GENERAL HINTS FOR FOOTNOTES

Introductory Remarks

The writer must acknowledge indebtedness to an author or source, not only for material quoted verbatim, but for every fact, judgment, theory, or principle taken from other sources. This applies, therefore, to paraphrase of summary as well. Common facts known to every intelligent reader need no acknowledgement. Failure to acknowledge the source is called plagiarism. It invites severe penalties since it amounts to cheating or robbing. All quotation should correspond exactly with the originals in wording, spelling and punctuation. Hence there is need for care. No matter how brief the quotation, the description of the context should usually be given in order to avoid misleading or unwarranted interpretation of the author quoted. While quoting, a quotation should never be given a sense different from that which it had in its original context. For example, it is wrong to say the following: The Bible says, “There is no God” (Ps 14:1). Quote authors who have something special to say about the topic under consideration (authors who give a new theory, express it in a striking way, or raise serious objections). Quote only the pertinent passages of an author who is an authority in the field. Second-hand quotations are permissible only if it is impossible to verify them in the original source.

Format

A quotation can be placed in the text or in the foot note or in the appendix. It is placed in the text if it is very important for the paper. It is placed in the footnote if it is merely a confirmation of an idea in the text. If the author has many passages, only the most appropriate quote is placed in the test; other passages are cited in the footnote. Footnote is the appropriate place for the original text whose translation is inserted into the body of the paper.

General Tips

Quotations, direct or indirect, should be kept to a minimum lest the paper may give the impression of being a mere compilation of quotations. A direct quotation must be as brief as possible contain only the really pertinent matter. A careful paraphrase or an exact summary is better than a long quotation. Such a paraphrase or summary must not be enclosed in quotation marks. The number of the footnote is placed at the end of the paraphrase or summary. Do not simply drop quotations into your paper and leave it to the reader to make connections. You must integrate the quotation into the paper with the help of signals, assertions and connections. Example: Ross, in her study of working-class women (signal), makes it clear that economic status determined the meaning of motherhood (assertion). Among this population (connection), “to mother was to work for and organize household subsistence.”

Short Quotations

If the quotation is short (fewer than one hundred words or approximately five typed lines of prose), enclose it within double quotation marks and incorporate it into your text. When a brief incorporated quotation ends a sentence in the text, it is always followed by a full stop. If a brief quotation is used within a sentence, the original punctuation is replaced by the punctuation proper to the sentence.

Long Quotations

Use long quotations only when it is necessary to do so. The long quotations are not enclosed in double quotation marks, but indented. If there is double quotation in the original source, convert it into single quotation mark if it is a brief quotation, but maintain the double quotation marks if it is a long quotation. If you are using the author-date format instead of foot-note, provide the surname of the author, followed by a colon, a space and the specific page. If you are giving footnotes to the citations, instead of the parenthetical citation, provide the superscript number in the text and complete reference in the footnotes. In quotations form works in foreign languages, it is helpful and advisable to give a translation, at least in the footnotes.

Ellipsis

The omission of words or sentences within a quotation is always indicated by ellipsis. For an ellipsis within a sentence, use three dots placed in square brackets […]. If there are ellipsis marks in the quoted author’s work, do not put brackets around them; brackets around ellipsis marks are meant to distinguish the ellipsis you added form the ellipsis marks in the quoted author’s work. Do not use ellipsis (…) to begin an indented quotation. However, while quoting many paragraphs, if words are omitted at the beginning of paragraphs other than the first, indicate the omission using ellipsis after the paragraph indentation. The omission of one complete paragraph or more in a prose quotation or of a line or more in a verse quotation should be indicated by a single line of spaced full stops. Enclose any foreign matter (change, addition, correction or personal comment) inserted into a direct quotation with brackets, i.e. [ ], not parentheses, i.e., () to indicate that it is not part of the original text. If some words required for easy reading are missing, insert them in brackets at the appropriate place.

Punctuation

The comma and the full stop are always placed inside the quotation marks, whether they are part of the quotation or not. The colon and semicolon are always placed outside the quotation marks. The exclamation mark or the question mark is placed inside the quotation marks when it is part of the quoted matter; otherwise, outside. Example: Does he precisely show “evil leading somehow to good”? The question asked was: “Can evil ever lead to good?”

Indicating Errors in the Original

Do not make corrections to the original text you are quoting even if the mistakes are evident.

An evident error (in spelling, grammar, logic) in the original is pointed out by enclosing sic (thus used) in brackets immediately after the error (sic). This is to assure the reader that the faulty spelling or logic was in the original.

Use of Capitals and Italics

The first word of a quotation is not capitalized if it is related grammatically to what precedes, even though in the original it begins a sentence (The Psalmist’s call to “taste and see that the Lord is good”). This rule should be followed for both kinds of quotations, i.e., continuous with text or set off. If the quotation starts after introductory, do not capitalize the first word. This is applicable even to block quotations. Words not italicized in the original may be italicized for emphasis. This change may be indicated to the reader by a notation enclosed in brackets placed immediately after the italicized words or in the foot note. Example: “I am not (italics added) one of the desk-pounding types that like to stick out his jaws.”

2.4       WRITING FOOTNOTES

The following points are discussed in this section: FOOTNOTES IN CHICAGO STYLE

Introductory Remarks, The research paper will have to be well documented. Proper documentation saves the researcher from the accusation of plagiarism, and the consequent penalties.

Frequently Used Abbreviations in Documentation

cf. = confer, compare

vol. = volume

Ibid. = ibidem, in the same place  (it is better to avoid it)

Trans. = translated by, translator.

n.d. = no date.

n.p. = no publisher, no place

ms. = manuscripts.

ed. = edition, edited by, editor

ch. Or chap. = chapter

Acknowledging the Sources

To acknowledge a source in a paper, place a superscript number immediately after the end of a sentence containing the quotation, paraphrase, or summary. If a single paragraph of your paper contains several references to the same author, it is permissible to use one number after the last quotation, paraphrase, or summary to indicate the source for all of the material used in that paragraph. Place notes at the bottom of each page, separated from the text with a typed line, 1.5 inches long. Indent the first line of each entry one-half inch (or five spaces) from the left margin; do not indent additional lines an entry. Begin the note with the Arabic numeral. Footnotes should be numbered consecutively, beginning with 1, either throughout the chapter or the work.

Format

Author’s first name and then last name.

Full title of the work with subtitles, if any.

Location of publication, publisher, and the year of publication in parentheses.

Page(s) from which information is taken, avoiding the abbreviations “p.” and “pp.” before page numbers.

Use commas to separate items.

__________________

                        1. Roger Fisher, Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement without Giving in (New York: Penguin Books, 1965), 85.

The first time to cite a source, the note should include publication information for that work as well as the page number on which the passage being cited may be found. After the first citation, for subsequent references to a source to have already cited, give only the author's last name, a short form of the title, and the page or pages cited. The short form of the title of a book is italicized; the short form of the title of an article is put in quotation makes. Use commas to separate items. For example:

__________________

                        3. Fisher, Getting to Yes, 31.

If the subsequent references follow immediately after reference, use the abbreviation “Ibid.” Ibid means “same as above.” It is used only when the note is form the same source as the one directly above. A page number is included if the second reference is form the same source as the one directly above, but the page form which it is taken is different from the first. For example:

__________________

                        3. Fisher, Getting to Yes, 31.

                        4. Ibid.

                        10. Ibid., 62.

In the author-date system, sources are cited in the text, usually in parenthesis. It includes the author’s last (family) name, the year of publication of the work, and a page number (Cox 1997, 166). Full details appear in the bibliography usually titled “References” or “Works Cited.”

2.5 EXAMPLES OF  FOOTNOTE OR ENDNOTE

     2. G. Wayne Miller, King of Hearts: The True Story of the Maverick Who Pioneered Open Heart Surgery (New York: Times, 2000) 245.

Bibliography example:

Miller, G. Wayne. King of Hearts: The True Story of the      Maverick Who Pioneered Open Heart Surgery. New York:  Times, 2000.

Use of ibid. and op. cit.:

Gibaldi  does NOT recommend the use of these old-fashioned abbreviations: ibid. (from the Latin ibidem meaning "in the same place") and op. cit. (from the Latin opere citato meaning "in the work cited.")

For Footnote or Endnote citations, if you should see the term ibid. being used, it just means that the citation is for the second mention of the same work with no intervening entries:

3 Ibid. 12-15.

More commonly, author and page number or numbers are now used instead of ibid., e.g.:

4 Miller 12-15.

For second or later mention of the same work with intervening entries, where previously op. cit. was used, now only the author and page number or numbers are used:

5 Miller 198.

Use of Superscript

[Tab] or indent Footnote and Endnote entries 5 spaces from the left margin. Leave one space between the superscript number and the entry. Do not indent second and subsequent lines. Double-space between entries. Number Footnotes and Endnotes consecutively using a superscript, e.g., 7.

For Endnotes, you must use the same superscript number (as in your text) at the beginning of each Endnote in your Endnotes list. Start your list of Endnotes on a new page at the end of your essay. Remember to put the Endnotes page before the Bibliography, or Works Cited, or References page.

Examples of first Footnotes or Endnotes, subsequent Footnotes or Endnotes, and listings on Works Cited or References page:

Reference from the Bible, Catechism, or Sacred Texts:

Example in text:

An interesting reference was made to the picking of corn on the Sabbath.8

Example of Footnote citation, long form:

8 Matthew 12:1-8.

Example of Footnote citation, short form:

8 Mt 12:1-8.

List under Works Cited:

The New Jerusalem Bible: Reader's Edition. New York: Doubleday, 1990.

Example in text:

The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that "Because of its common origin the human race forms a unity, for 'from one ancestor [God] made all nations to inhabit the whole earth.'"9

Example of a first Footnote or Endnote citation for the above quote from Catechism of the Catholic Church, Part I, Section 2, Chapter 1, Article 1, Paragraph 6I, Reference #360, Page 103, would be:

9 Catechism of the Catholic Church (New York: Doubleday, 1994) 360.

Subsequent citation of this same quote:

10 Catechism 360.

Citation of a different quote from the same book:

11 Catechism 1499.

List under Works Cited:

Catechism of the Catholic Church. New York: Doubleday, 1994.

Examples of Footnote or Endnote citations for other sacred texts:

12 Pius XII, encyclical, Summi Pontificatus 3.

13 Roman Catechism I, 10, 24.

Do not confuse Footnote and Endnote citations with explanatory Notes that some authors refer to as "Endnotes." These Notes are not considered to be citations but are used to add comments, explanations, or additional information relating to specific passages in the text.

Internet Sources:

In internet citations, there may be two dates found. First date = Web page creation or modification date, if it is available. Second date = the date you accessed the Web page. If the Web page does not have a modification or creation date, leave it out, but always indicate our access date of the URL (Lee 2010).

     19 Canada, Indian and Northern Affairs, "Aboriginal Peoples Survey: From APS I to APS II." Facts from Stats, Corporate Information Management Directorate, Issue No. 15, Mar. 2000, http://www.inac.gc.ca/nr/nwltr/sts/2000-03_e.html, accessed on 15 Dec. 2004.

   

     19 James Henretta, et al., "Richard Allen and African-American  Identity," America's History, Spring 1997, http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/spring97/allen.html, accessed on 11 Feb. 2006.

     19 "Edsitement," http://edsitement.neh.gov, accessed on 12 Feb. 2006.

     19 Abdullah al-Shiri, "Danish Cartoon Prompts Protest," Sunday Herald 29 Jan. 2006, http://ww1.sundayherald.com/53793 accessed on 12 Feb. 2006.

2.6 EXAMPLE OF A RESEARCH ARTICLE 

Physical Immortality:

Human Longing, Scientific Basis and Religious Response

Kuruvilla Pandikattu SJ

Jnana-Deepa Vidyapeeth, Pune, India

“The ancient seers were not egoistic. They called the whole humanity – past, present future – Amrutya putra. You are all sons of immortality. Equal and eternal.” Bhagawan Rajneesh  (Osho 1998: ch3)

“Mankind will postpone human ageing substantially in the future, doubling the human lifespan at least, when we have accomplished this we will be ashamed that we did not work on it much sooner.” Michael Rose, Evolutionary Biogerontologist. 

0. Introduction

According to the creation myth of  Konos tribes of Guinea, Sa or death existed before anything. Death is regarded as the primary creator in this tradition. Once, long time ago, there was only darkness and Sa lived there with his wife and daughter. Since he wanted something more durable he created a slushy kind of mud sea as a place to live. From nowhere appeared the god Alatangana and he decided to improve on the work of Sa. Alatangana made the slush solid and added animals and plants to it. Sa was pleased and they became friends. But when the god asked for Sa’s daughter the friendship fell apart. However, Alatangana met the girl secretly and eloped to a distant place and they produced 14 children: four white boys, four white girls, three  black boys and three black girls. The children spoke different languages and the parents could not understand them.

This made them so upset that they decided to return to Sa and ask for his advice.  Sa was ready to reconcile and demanded that the black and white children do not intermarry. So the different race originated. Sa demanded further: “You have stolen my only child. Now you must give me one of yours whenever I wish it. When I wish to call one of your children I must never be denied. You will know I am called by the sound of the calabash rattle in your dream.”  (Lemming & Lemming 1994: 164) So it was that death for us humans is the bride-price for Alatangana’s marriage with Sa’s daughter. So death is intrinsically linked to human’s origin.

This simple myth explains aetiologically both darkness and life, death and birth, sex and procreation and gives justification to the races. The main focus of my article is that this intimate link between death and life may be soon broken – at least in our collective consciousness. It will have shattering consequences for our human – philosophical and religious – longing and hope.

In this article I first study the quest for human physical immortality as a religious search. I see the emerging religious and collective movements which try to overcome death. In the next section we see the scientific basis for physical immortality. Though there is no hard “scientific” evidence for physical immortality, there are so many scientific disciplines at their cutting-edge or frontier research which indicate at least the theoretical possibility for physical immortality. In the final part we see the social or religious response to such a scenario. We shall show that such a possibility does not negate but radically alters our very understanding and scope for longing and fulfilment. We conclude by affirming that such a guiding of our total destiny requires a healthy dialogue between science and society or  technology and religion.

1. Physical Immortality: A Primordial Human Longing

Though the longing for an everlasting life has been a perennial quest, we are somehow used to our physical death. Since we all take our mortality for granted, the geronotlogist author Herb Bowie holds that we tend to ignore the most potent anti-ageing organ in your body – the mind! If so, then the subconscious messages we are constantly sending ourselves may be sabotaging human longevity. “Can you imagine yourself living for 100 years, 120, or even longer? If not, then you may be undermining your nutritional program by feeding yourself ‘mental junk food’ -- negative programming predicting your own deterioration and demise.”  (Bowie 1999)

The author exhorts that we should start feeding your mind a new food. His book, Why Die? speaks clearly and intelligently about the possibility of living virtually forever. By stretching the  mind to accept this exciting new human possibility, we shall be conditioning ourselves  to live a longer, healthier and happier life. 

Most of us make the unconscious decision that we have to die. They assume that their fate is ordained by the laws of nature, or by destiny. This choice is made so early in life, and at such an unconscious level, that few people ever even challenge it. So ask the question on human immortality will shake people up. Because even to ask this question is to imply something unthinkable for many people -- that death is a choice, and not a foregone conclusion. Further, most of us feel disoriented and threatened by the consideration of physical immortality as a real possibility. It is within these chilling prospects that the author introduces the concept of physical immortality.

To understand the idea of living forever, according to Bowie, we must look at two very different aspects of physical immortality. On the one hand, it is about eternity, about surviving to some unthinkably distant point in the future. On the other hand, though, it is all about choosing how to live our lives today. It is only when we connect these two extremes, and find a way to live our lives as an unbroken continuum between these two points, that we fully achieve physical immortality. There is an element of paradox here.

This paradox is also expressed in these haunting lines from William Blake.

To see a world in a grain of sand And a heaven in a wild flower, Hold infinity in the palm of your hand, And eternity in an hour.  (Capra 1977: 288)

I believe that Blake was not speaking metaphorically though. In the book the author wants to talk about transforming the quality of our lives today, by focusing our attention on our own eternity.  At the same time, I will be talking about actually living for hundreds and thousands of years, by focusing our attention on the quality of our lives today. The author asserts that if such a view seems like a paradox, then this is only because we view our today’s and our tomorrow’s as separate and unconnected.

Physical immortality is difficult, in a way, to talk about at length because it can be approached from so many different angles. Since all of these perspectives are equally valid, it is impossible to do the subject justice by discussing it in a strictly linear fashion. We can start with forever and work backwards. We can start with today and go forwards. We can talk about the fate of humanity, or we can discuss the personal feelings of one individual. No matter how we approach the subject, though, we always seem to arrive at the same conclusion: that living forever is a practical and meaningful goal.

Reaching the same conclusion from so many different starting points is reassuring in the long run, but can be a bit disconcerting at first, as we repeatedly shift perspectives. We may feel more comfortable with some approaches than with others, and so may be tempted to skip around.

Following similar lines of thought, another scholar claims that the first immortal human beings are living among us today.   (Bova 2000) It is asserted by its proponents that there are men and women alive today who may well be able to live for centuries, perhaps even extend their life-spans indefinitely. For them, death will not be inevitable.  Death will have to die  for them!

Such immortal humans will not age. They will not become feeble and sickly. Ageing will be stopped, even reversed. One may be young and vigorous forever.  Accidents and violence will not disappear, of course. People will still be vulnerable to poor judgement, bad luck and evildoers. But death from old age, death as the inescapable end of life, will become a thing of the past, a dark memory of primitive days. As the American immunologist William R. Clark put it, “Death is not inextricably intertwined with the definition of life.” Just because human beings have always died does not mean that they always will die.

This same idea is reflected in the leading article of the German weekly: Der Spiegel.   (Hanshalter 2000) It asserts that immorality belongs to the originary human desire (Ursehrsucht).  It will not just redeem humanity from death but raise it almost to the level of gods. Michael Fossel, professor of Clinical Medicine in the State University of Michigan asserts: “the most significant turn in the human history has begun. In twenty years we can stop the process of ageing and reverse biological clock.” He certainly is a super-optimist. Philipp Lee Miller of the Longevity Institute in Los Gatos, prophesies:  “in a few years time 80 year olds will feel like 20 year olds and will play  like teens.” This sentiment is accentuated by the  New Yorker Professor Michio Kaku, who expects a tripling of life expectancy and a cessation of ageing process in a few years time.

The above longings and claims make it abundantly clear that immortality is slowly distilling into the collective unconsciousness of humanity. We shall study further the claims of immortality and see if there is any psychological and scientific basis for it.

[Pages omitted]

5. Conclusion

Such a possibility of human immortality has deep rooted religious consequence. Religions can  ignore the challenges posed by immortality only at the danger of instant self mortality. The obvious danger of such a possibility is that each one becomes so preoccupied with his own individual immortality and forgets the human community and life in general. There is a danger that the larger issues of providing justice for the impoverished, fostering of life in general and love as the most significant human value may be forgotten.

At the same time it must be reiterated that physical immortality does not render God superfluous, religion redundant and human longing unnecessary. Even in the situation of immortal humans there is scope for meaningful hope, for relevant religion and for a liberating God. At the same time Immortality necessitates a human hope that may be detached from physical death. In our ordinary understanding of human longing, death is seen as the starting point of eschatology  or human hope. That view has to be given up and we need to delve deep into the “inaugurated eschatology” which theologians have taken seriously since few decades.

We still need to take death seriously. But death may not be given the supreme importance and inevitability that was it due once. So the human hope and fulfilment has to begin with this present world, with the here and now. There are of course social and existential problems like poverty and injustice which are to be tackled seriously.

It must be noted that overcoming physical death and attaining physical immortality does not solve the problem of human contingency. The issue of human finitude  has to be addressed in a much wider sense. The tendency of those seeking physical immortality – passive acceptance -  is to reduce human life to a physicalistic or mechanistic view point. They would stress that attainment of  physical immortality – temporal unlimitedness – necessarily leads to human fulfillment. We need to focus also on the existential and ontological contingency of human condition, not merely that of the temporal conditioning.

So even in a world of immortal human beings, human longing and hope is imperative. Hope still remains intrinsic to humans. But it is a hope based on the day-to-day experience of humans and rooted in the present day, not one aimed primarily at a later world “a pie-in-the-sky-when-you-die” type. So life, today’s precious, fragile life, has to be taken seriously.  It has to be affirmed, respected and fostered in its entirety.  We can hope to pay back the bride-price for Alatangana’s marriage with Sa’s daughter and life lives “full and abundant” and not necessarily temporally limited.

References

Bowie, Herb, http: www.powersurgepub.com/books\immort\Bowie why die.htm, 1999. See also URL: http:// www.sff.net. people.benbova.

Leeming, David and Leeming, Margareth, A Dictionary of Creation Myths, OUP, New York/Oxford: 1994.

Osho, Bhagavan, Beyond Enlightenment, ch 3, “No other path but life.” (From CD rom) 1998.

Pandikattu, Kuruvilla (2000) “Significance of God if humans were to become immortal,” The Month 33 (July 2000): 264-268.

Pandikattu, Kuruvilla,  (1999) “Eschatology: Arena for Creative Encounter between Science and Religion.”  Jeevadhara 29 (April 1999) 154-164.

Spiegel,Der (2000) 17/2000. URL http://www. spiegel.de/ spiegel/21jh/0,1518, 73761,00.html.

 2.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit various ways of writing footnotes are studied, along with their significance in a research article.

2.8  KEY WORDS

Citation: It is a reference to a published or unpublished source given within the text of an article.

Ellipsis:  The omission of a word or phrase necessary for a complete syntactical construction but not necessary for understanding

Indentation: The amount of space left between a margin and the start of an indented line. Also called indent.

UNIT 3           METHOD OF NOTES TAKING

Contents

3.0       Objectives

3.1       Introduction

3.2       Methods of Note-taking

3.3       Card Style

3.4       Note Book Style

3.5       Note taking in a Computer

3.6       Types of Note-taking

3.7       Notes from Field Research

3.8       Errors to be Avoided

3.9       Let us Sum up

3.10     Key Words

3.11     Further Readings and References

3.0       OBJECTIVES

Research methodology is a system of methods used for collecting data, information etc. for the solution of problems identified for research. The central idea of this unit is to bring out the importance of note taking in the process of research work. Although it is only one among the different methods while doing research it has enough significance since the accuracy in taking notes will help us to save a lot of time while preparing the final report, bibliography etc. The different methods of note taking are also dealt in this unit. The various types of note taking like summary, paraphrasing, précis, and quotation are also given importance here. The rules to be followed in each type of note taking are dealt in detail so that all methods of note taking and the errors to be avoided are clarified here. Hence by the end of this unit you will be able to

•           have a basic understanding of note taking method;

•           know about the different methods of note taking;

•           understand different types of note taking;

•           make out the rules to be followed in the different types of note taking;

•           know about the errors to be avoided while taking notes.

3.1       INTRODUCTION

Research is an inquiry carried out scientifically to discover truth, to draw new conclusion and to bring out new facts. It is the way to acquire knowledge. According to Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, Research is “an investigation undertaken in order to discover new facts, get additional information etc.” Another definition of research is that it is “any organised inquiry designed and carried out to provide information for solving a problem”. Thus it is any activity which helps to gain fresh insight into something. It is a careful search or inquiry into any subject matter, which is an endeavour to discover or find out valuable facts which would be useful for further application or utilisation. The above mentioned definitions and explanations specify all the major aims of research i.e., discovery of new facts, verification and testing of old facts, analysis of interrelationships and causal explanations and development of new tools, concepts and theories. A research paper is that in which the conclusions and findings of such inquiry appear. It is through a research paper that we communicate our findings of research to others. When we have communicated to others, the ability to write clear is vital. In order to be meaningful and clear in communication we should first have a clear cut understanding of the research problem. Only then we will be able express our self while communicating it to others. Language used in the paper should always be concrete and it should be specific.

In order to begin a research work we have to consult relevant sources of information. The sources of information can be primary or secondary. The primary sources provide data gathered at first hand and from which the researcher directly collects data that have not been collected previously. The secondary sources are those from which data are got at second hand, that is, sets of data that taken from other people’s original data. Whereas primary data are first hand information collected through various methods like observation, interviewing, mailing etc, secondary data are data which have collected and complied for another purpose. Primary sources include journal articles, research reports, conference papers, thesis, project reports etc. Bibliographies, reference books, reviews, directories etc form secondary sources. The researcher should be capable of sorting out the reliable material useful for his research work advanced by these sources. After determining the reliability and usefulness of the sources, we will have to take notes on it. In this unit, we are making a detail study of the method of notes taking in the process of research.

3.2       METHOD OF NOTE-TAKING

The clarity in reporting a research work is influenced by the reader in view, how technical the problem is, the research’s hold over his facts and techniques, his command over language and the form and fullness of notes, i.e., of the data and documentation. For keeping accurate records we need high quality notes and this shows the importance of note-taking in research. Thus notes taking is an important part while writing a research paper. This records the information of the sources that we will use while reporting our research work. Therefore, it is necessary that we should critically evaluate the texts or articles before we select them and then make necessary choices before taking notes on them. Otherwise, there is a chance to overload with information which will be time consuming.

To take effective notes, first of all, we should understand thoroughly the information contained in the sources. Then notes should be taken from it so as to develop knowledge and comprehension of the subject. Thus going through a source, making a decision about what is useful for a paper and writing notes on it should encourage the researcher to think more deeply and understand the relevance of the notes taken by him to the research topic. Again, he should also sort out the material he needs from other information surrounding it in the text, while taking notes on it. To make use of this information effectively in the research work, care should be taken to record it in such a way that it can be easily sorted, reorganised and incorporated in the paper.

We should take notes in such a way that it briefly summarizes the most important points of each source. Main points has to be stressed in the notes and it should be clear and concise as possible. The details that are unnecessary to the research area should be avoided. It is not always necessary to write complete sentences or even complete words. We can use abbreviations which saves a lot of time. But it should be used in such a way that we can understand them in the notes when we consult it later. One important thing to be remembered during note taking is that we should always remember to be record the page number in the text or articles from which our note is taken. As far as possible, all bibliographical details has to be added for each source. If possible, we should also try to the review the chapter or article after note taking so as to make it sure that we have not missed any important points and also to see that our notes are accurate and complete. The notes has to be recorded in such a way that we can easily locate all the points related to a particular subject easily and readily identify the source from which a piece of information is taken. Thus the requirements of a good not taking system are as follows: It should facilitate ready location of the recorded information when required. It should allow flexible handling and organising of information and All notes related to a particular concept of a topic should be available together.

There are different methods in taking notes. Some researchers take notes by hand on index cards or  in sheets of paper of a note book. Some others prefer using a computer to take notes as it will save their time as well as improve the accuracy in transcribing the material from the sources. While collecting data by taking notes we should set down first the authors full name and complete title of the source. By doing this we will be able to locate the same source easily while working for bibliography.

3.3       CARD STYLE

If we are taking notes on cards we should record each piece of information from a source in a separate card. For each source the completer bibliographical information has to be recorded in one card, which will be our bibliographical card. Thus this is not only helpful for accuracy and organisation but also, technically while compiling the bibliography. If we are taking notes on cards, we should mention the name of the author as usual and the name of the book is to  be underlined. While taking down the matter, we should leave some margin on the left side of the card. The card possessing the material from an article from a book should first mention the name of the author and then the title of the article in inverted commas with the work cited in underline and the page no:. If there are two authors, we should mention the name of the first author and write the other or ‘et al’. For e.g.:  Kootz , Harold, et al, ‘ Management ’  Mc Graw-Hill International Book Company, New Delhi, 1980. p. 120.  If the publication is an edited one, we should use ‘ed ’ after the name.

For multiple notes from the same source, we should record a short form of the title and author’s last name in the upper right hand corner of each card. We should always record the page umber from which our summaries, ideas, paraphrases or direct quotes have been taken in the lower right hand corner. Materials taken from journal should indicate the name of the author, title of the article within inverted commas and also the volume and details of journal along with the page number. For e.g.:-Ananthu, T .S. “Hind Swaraj- Its Relevance Today.” Gandhi Marg. New Delhi: Gandhi Peace Foundation, Vol. 31.  NO. 2, July- September 2009. Pg no. 192.

In order to facilitate organising and reorganising information subject or topic headings on the cards can be written in pencil. To make note taking on cards more convenient and easy sometimes two sets of cards are used. One is source cards and the second is known as note cards. Source cards are used for noting bibliographical information and the note cards are used for actual note taking. In the source cards bibliographic information should be recorded in the proper bibliographic format. ‘Author’s name, the title of the book, the publisher’s name, place and year. On the note cards information from a printed source is recorded. To make it more flexible , it is better to note a single fact or an idea on each card and to use only one side of the card. In the body of the card, first, the name of the author and the title of the book or article may be noted in order to avoid making any mistake in identifying the concerned source card. The page number of the source from which the idea or fact has been taken also is to be noted. Thus, the two sets of cards together will facilitate in arranging the notes appropriately for drafting the report.

   

 3.4      NOTE BOOK STYLE

In this method, we should record all information on a single page or a series of pages in the note book. We should write all the bibliographical details including the author, title, place of publication, publisher and year of publication at the top of the page of each source. Notes should be recorded in the middle of the page leaving wide margins. In the right hand margin page numbers of the source from which we have made the notes has to be recorded. The specific topic to which each piece of information is related can be noted in the left hand margin . For each source we are consulting , a new page can be allotted. Notes can be listed according to topic also. But here care should be taken to list the page numbers because otherwise it will be very confusing.

3.5       NOTE TAKING IN A COMPUTER

Notes can be entered in a computer and these notes will be handy. We can enter the notes into a word processor as separate files in one directory. Otherwise, we can enter all notes in a single file rendering new name or phrase for each new note. In the first method the needed notes can be moved to appreciate place in our draft by copying and pasting method. For a short paper, it is better to opt the computer method and if it is a longer which makes use of many sources, it is better to opt the cards system because card system is the most suitable method of note taking. It meets all the requirements of a good recording system. Cards are tougher and so can withstand handling. As they are compact, they can be handled easily and can be stored conveniently in boxes. Also the cards are most flexible while arranging, rearranging, grouping, and classifying information.

3.6       TYPES OF NOTE-TAKING

Different types of note-taking include –summary, paraphrase, quotation and précis.

Summary

If we want only the general idea of a large amounts of material, it is better to summarise it. This type of note taking describes and rewrites the source material without specific concern for style and expression. But it should be done with great care and in this type of note taking we should try to keep the material as short as possible. Quotation marks may be provided for key phrase that cannot be paraphrased. Name of the author and page number also has be mentioned in the note.

Paraphrase

It is restating the material in our own words. As we have to restate the thought, meaning and attitude of another person in our own words, paraphrase may be considered as the most difficult type of note taking. In order to be sound and perfect, in paraphrasing we should try to rewrite the original in about the same number of words as possible. In text citation may be provided to the source by mentioning the author and page number in the paraphrase. Care should be taken while paraphrasing exceptional words and phrases in the original. It is better to retain by enclosing them within quotation marks. We should always try to avoid word by word copying as far as possible in this type of note taking. Paraphrasing will help the researcher to understand the author’s ideas rather than just mechanically copying them.

Quotation

Direct quotation may be used for documentation of a major argument where a foot note would not be sufficient and where paraphrasing the passage might cause misinterpretation. The exact words of an author or the exact words from an official publication must be quoted. Quotation notes are necessary because it will enable us to capture opinion of the experts on the subject. It will also help us to show that we have carried out research in that area carefully and also to show that there is an authoritative opinion on the topic we have discussed in the research area. Where a few paragraphs or sentences are required to be quoted from a quotation which is very long, it is permissible to omit sections of an original passage by a procedure called ellipsis. To indicate ellipsis three spaced full stops(---) are inserted. An ellipsis can occur at the beginning or the end of a quotation. Use double quotation marks at the beginning and the end of quotation. We should never forget to acknowledge the quotations by way of a footnote or otherwise.

     

Other rules to be followed while taking quotation notes include –

We should always try to quote from primary and secondary sources.

The quoted material selected should be important and well phrased

We should always use exact words of the source

If at all possible, we should quote key sentences and short passages instead of entire paragraphs.

Quotation marks should be used in the notes so as to distinguish it from summary and paraphrase. If we are downloading a text and taking quotation from it into our paper, we should always remember to place quotation marks around the words taken from the source.

Précis

This is quick summary notes. It can be used to review an article or a book or create an abstract. The original source has to condensed  here with precision and directness so that the tone of it is preserved. It is better to write the précis note in our own language but exceptional phrases from the original can be retained here by enclosing it in quotation marks. Documentation also should be provided.

3.7       NOTES FROM FIELD RESEARCH

In some instances we will be expected to conduct field research. This work will require different kinds of notes kept on charts, cards, notes pads, a research journal, or a computer. If we interview knowledgeable people, we should  make careful notes during the interviews and transcribe those notes to our draft in a polished form. If we conduct a questionnaire, the results will become valuable data for developing notes, graphs and charts for our research paper. In summarising, paraphrasing, quoting or précis it is important to keep an accurate record of the pages and other numbered sections. Care should also be taken to be in a middle way between not taking too much of notes and not recording too little. We should try to be both thorough and concise. Accuracy has to be maintained not only in quotations but also in summarising and paraphrasing the original sources. 

Good note taking will help us a lot in avoiding plagiarism which is the act of taking ideas , passages etc. from an author and presenting them as one’s own. Writers plagiarise when they present the words or ideas of others without making it clear that these are not their own words or ideas. In order to make sure that we have not plagiarised, we should see that each of the phrase or ideas borrowed from other sources are credited to that source. Acknowledgement of the source is that which distinguishes a scholar from a plagiarist. In the MLA Hand book For Writers of Research Papers, Sr.Joseph Gibaldi has mentioned of different forms of plagiarism. According to him, “the most blatant form of plagiarism is to obtain and submit as your own a paper written by someone else. Other, less conspicuous form of plagiarism includes the failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when repeating or paraphrasing another’s wording, when taking a particular apt phrase, and when paraphrasing another’s argument or presenting another’s line of thinking”. Thus plagiarism is a failure to acknowledge borrowed material.

In order to avoid plagiarism we should always make a list of all the writers and sources from which the viewpoints we have used in our research work and should acknowledge the same. Acknowledgement may be made in several ways-(1) in the bibliography (2) within the text, either by specific reference or parenthetical reference or (3) in a foot note which is the commonest form of acknowledgement.

3.8       ERRORS TO BE AVOIDED

The most common and serious error in taking notes is to copy the wording of the source directly, either word-for word or with minor changes. This not only prevents the researcher in processing the information fully into their mind, but also encourages plagiarism since the notes find their way directly  into the paper. The best way to avoid this is not to look at your sources as you write your notes. In that way we will be sure to use our own words. Including too many details in notes will slow down our research work. If we are doing this, we are not distinguishing between significant and insignificant information. Notes are meant to be concise. Direct quotation should be used only when we have a special purpose. If we use a direct quotation we should copy it accurately. We should remember to include page number on notes. Otherwise, we will have to spend valuable time, returning to the sources to find page numbers. Note taking is thus an important phase in the process of research and it helps  a lot in saving our time during the presentation of Research paper which is dealt in the next unit.

Check Your Progress I

3.9       LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have tried to give  a detail study about the note taking method and its importance in the Research process. While taking notes for research, many methods can be adopted by researchers according to their convenience. It can be done either by writing down in papers or separate cards and arranging them in an order or by using a computer. The common types of note taking method include summarising, paraphrasing, précis and quotations which is also given due importance in this unit. Rules to be followed  while taking notes are also explained here. As conclusion the importance in the accuracy in note taking to avoid plagiarism is mentioned.

3.10     KEY WORDS

Paraphrase   :    Expression of meaning of passage in other words.

Précis               :    Abstract or a summary.

Summary         :    Abridgement or statement of chief points.

Quote              :    Copy or repeat passages from.

Plagiarize         :    Take and use as one’s own

UNIT 4           METHOD OF THESIS PROPOSAL AND PRESENTATION

Contents

4.0       Objectives

4.1       Introduction

4.2       Preliminary Section

4.3       Presenting the Problem of the Thesis

4.4       Design of the Study

4.5       Main Body of the Thesis

4.6       Conclusion, Summary and Recommendations

4.7       Reference Material

4.8       Let us Sum up

4.9       Key Words

4.10     Further Readings and References

4.0       OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this unit is to explain the standard method of presenting a thesis or research report. In order to communicate the result of the research work in a systematic manner its report should well prepared. This unit provides the guidelines for it by giving in detail the various components to be included in the report and their proper way of arrangement. After go through this unit you will be able to:

•           Understand the fundamentals of report writing;

•           Acquire yourself with the format of a thesis;

•           Identify the various types of bibliography;

•           Acquire the skill to compile a bibliography and appendix.

4.1       INTRODUCTION

For disseminating the results of research, the researchers have to communicate the results of their research in a systematic manner. These written reports will be useful only if they are well prepared. This report should be a straight forward document that clearly, precisely and effectively describes what the researcher has done to investigate a problem. Report writing, therefore, is an essential procedure in research. In this unit, we are having a detail study about the method to be followed while presenting a research report. As the research report is an exposition, it must explain the study by giving all details of it. It must follow the rules of rhetoric , since it is a composition and it should be well arranged. In general, a research report consists of three parts-

•           The preliminary,

•           The text or the main body of the report,

•           The reference material.

The core forms the middle part or the main body or text of the report. It is preceded by the preliminaries comprising the title page, acknowledgements, table of contents etc. The core is followed by the end part containing the appendices, bibliography etc.

4.2       PRELIMINARY SECTION

The preliminary consists of the following components.

•           The title page

•           Researcher’s declaration

•           The certificate of the supervisor

•           Preface including acknowledgements

•           Table of contents

•           List of tables, and figures

•           Abstract or synopsis

•           List of abbreviations.

Now let us have a brief look into each of the above items .

The title page

The first page of the report is the title page. It should carry a concise and adequately descriptive title of the research study. It should be precise and reflect the core of the problem under study. Even though the format of title page differ from one to another , they usually include- (1) the title of the study (2) the name of the degree for which it is submitted (3) name of the author (4) the name of the institution where the report is to be submitted and (5) the date of presentation of the report. The entire title should be typed in all capital letters, single spaced and centred between the right and left margins of the page. Where more than one line is required , it should be broken and arranged to make a pleasing appearance on the page. The statement with respect to the University ,Course and the Academic degree for which the thesis is submitted should be typed in lower case with capitalised initial letters below the title line. The name of the researcher should be typed in capital letters leaving 6-2 cm from the previous statement. The name of the institution where the report is to be submitted and the date of of presentation of the report are typed in double space leaving  7-5 cm distance from the name of the researcher and 2.5 cm from the bottom of the title page.

Researcher’s declaration

In case the research is undertaken by a student in fulfilment of the requirement of a degree, he may be required to make a declaration.

Researcher’s supervisor’s certificate

Again, in case of a student’s research work , his research supervisor has to certify that it was a record of independent research work done by the student.

Preface including acknowledgements

A preface may include reasons, why, in the first place, the topic was selected by the researcher. The relevance of a study may also be mentioned here. If the researcher has opted to discuss the significance and nature of his research in ‘introductory chapter’ then he may not write preface. But he can use the page to make acknowledgements. Here the researcher acknowledges the assistance and support received from individuals and organisations in conducting the research. Here thank all those who have helped him for a variety of reasons including guidance, during the period of study. It is thus intended to show his gratitude. The comments , given in acknowledgements should be brief, simple , temperate and modest and given only for substantial assistance and cooperation of a non- routine character which warrants public recognition.

Table of contents

The table of contents appear after the preface and it gives an outline of the contents of the thesis. It contains a list of the chapters and their sub-titles with page numbers. Subtitles, however, should be indented under each chapter title and be followed by the specific page or section references. If reference to specific pages for subtitles is not desired, the subtitles may  run together and separated by semi- colons or dashes. When so many subheadings exist it may give an overcrowded look if all these are included in the table of contents. Hence, these may be placed at the beginning of that particular chapter below the title. It thus facilitates ready location of topics in the report.

The table of content also include the preface/ acknowledgement, list of tables and figures etc. The heading “Table of Contents” should be the centre at the top of the page and in capital letters. The chapter headings may be typed in capital letters and subtitles in small letters. Small letters should be used for the subheadings except for the initial letter and of all nouns, pronouns , verbs etc. On the right hand side should be typed the heading “Page” at the right margin below which page numbers will appear. On the left hand side will appear the headings in the sequence in which they actually appear in the thesis.

List of Tables and figures

If table and figures are included in the report, separate pages for them should follow the table of contents. Figures refer to map, drawings, graphs, charts, diagrams etc. The full titles of tables and figures, worded exactly as they appear in text, arte presented with corresponding /consecutive numbers and page locations. Arabic numerals are usually used for identifying tables, figures etc. In the list of table and figures, the titles should be typed with initial capitals , rather than all capital letters.

Abstract  or synopsis

An abstract is a summary of the findings of the research work. It should be as brief as possible  and run about only one or two pages. It is placed at the prefatory part of the report so that a reader can get a quick overview of the report. Along with the summary of the findings or result of the investigation, it states in brief the purpose and scope of the study and also the method used for the research work. Here care should be taken that there is no over emphasis of the minor points and also that important points has to be treated adequately.

Abbreviations

          Only such names are to be abbreviated which are likely to appear too often in the report. Name of persons are never abbreviated. Most of the forms of abbreviations are universally accepted because of the international readership of the scholarly dissertations and thesis. The list of abbreviations should appear before the beginning of the main text.

4.3       PRESENTING THE PROBLEM OF THE THESIS

After the prefatory items, the body of the report is presented. It is the major part of the report. In a comprehensive report, the body of the report will consist of several chapters. The division of the report into chapter or sections should reflect the organisation of the parts with one another and with the whole; i.e.; the division should be logical to make the contents meaningful. The text usually consists of- (1) Introduction (2) Design of the study  (3) Main body of the report (4) Summary, conclusions and recommendations.

Introduction

This is the first chapter in the body of a research report. It is devoted for introducing the theoretical background of the portion, its definition and formulation. It should be presented in such a way that it interests the reader in the subject matter of research. It must not be dull and lack in precession. It may consist of the following sections.

Theoretical background of the topic

Here the researcher introduces the background and the nature of the problem so as to place it into a larger context to enable the reader to know its significance in a proper perspective. This section summarises the theory or a conceptual frame work within which the problem has been investigated.

Statement of the problem

In this section the researcher has to point out why and how the problem under research was selected. There is a need of clear statement of the nature of the problem with specific questions to be answered or hypothesis to be tested. A consideration of significance of the problem and its historical background is also a need. Hence in this section the problem is clearly defined and its facets and significance are pointed out. For this the problem may be broken down into constituent elements or major subdivisions.

Review literature

This is an important part of the introductory chapter. Here a brief review of previous studies on the problem and significant writings on the topic under study is stated. Thus it is summarising the current status of research work already done in the research area sought. Previous research studies are abstracted and significant writings of authorities in the area under study are review. Such a review provides a background for the development of the present study and makes the reader up to date. Brief summary indicating areas of agreement or disagreement in findings or gaps in existing knowledge should be included. How the research work is an attempt to fill that gap is highlighted in this part of the introduction.

Significance of the study

The significance of the problem, the contribution that the study is expected to make, its practical importance and the national relevance is specifically indicated in this section.

The scope of the study

The dimensions of the study in terms of the geographical area covered, the designation of the population being studied or the exact coverage of the study is mentioned here.

The objectives of the study

The objectives of the study and investigative questions relating to each of the objectives are presented.

Hypotheses

The specific hypotheses to be tested are stated. The sources of their formulation may be indicated.

Definition of concepts

The operational definitions of the key concepts of the study are presented here. i.e., various concepts or domains proposed to be used in a research requires to be stated. Definitions or special meanings of all important terms so as to enable the reader to understand the concepts underlying the investigation is to be indicated. How those concepts are defined by early writers and how the definition of the researcher were an improvement over earlier definition may be explained.

4.4       DESIGN OF THE STUDY

This part of the thesis is devoted for the presentation of all the aspects of the methodology and their implementation ,i.e., methods of data collection instruments, methods of data processing and plan of analysis. Most of this material is taken from the research proposal plan. The revisions, if any made therefore should be clearly stated. The details of the study’s design should be fully stated so as to enable another researcher to reproduce the study and test its conclusions.

Methodology

 In this section, the overall typology of research used and the data collection methods employed are described. It also describes how the field work was carried out, the reliability of instruments selected and the statistical tools and procedures used in the analysis.

1. Sources of data:- The sources from which the primary and secondary data were gathered are stated. The limitations of secondary data also should be indicated.

2. Sampling plan:- The size of the universe from which the sample was drawn, the sampling methods adopted and the sample size and process of sampling are described in this section. The estimate of sampling error and what were originally planned and what were achieved are also to be given. These details are essential for determining the limitations of the funding.

3. Data collection instruments:- The types of instruments used for data collection and their contents, scales and other devices used for measuring variables and the procedure of establishing their validity and reliability are described in this section.

4. Field work:- When and how the field work was conducted and what problems and difficulties were faced during the field work are described under this sub-heading. The description of field experience will provide valuable lessons for future researchers in organising and conducting their field work.

5. Data processing and analysis plan:- The method adopted for data processing and an account of methods used for data analysis and testing hypothesis must be out lined and justified. If common methods are used there is only a need to mention about them. But of an unusual method was used, sufficient details of them has to e described so as to enable the reader to understand it.

Chapterisation:- Chapterisation or the scheme of chapters in the main body of the thesis and their interrelationship is briefly described in this section in order to give an overview of the presentation of the results of the study.

Limits of the study:- All research designs have limitations and so do all research implementations .Such limitations may vitiate the conclusions and their generalisations. The sincere investigator faces these problems and he reports them carefully and honestly in the introduction itself. This will help the reader to judge the validity of the conclusions and the general worth of the study in the proper perspective.

4.5       MAIN BODY OF THE THESIS

This is the heart of the research report and probably the largest section of the report. It should be an organised presentation of the results and each major division of the problem should be presented in a separate chapter. The chapters should be well- balanced, mutually related and arranged in logical sequence. Each chapter should be given an appropriate heading. The chapter should include a discussion of the issue or part of the problem investigated and evidence used in its solution. If this becomes lengthy a summary of the evidence may be made at the end of the chapter. Through textual situation and tabular and graphic devices, the data are critically analysed and interpreted. Every table or chart should be self-contained and self-explanatory unit within the body of the report, and the presentation should be so clear that the reader be able to grasp the finding either by reading the text or looking at the table or chart.

The results should be reported as accurately and completely as possible. The data themselves should be described fully, they should be analysed in detail and all the evidence resulting from the analysis should be presented. These chapters are primarily for the use of the reader who wishes to make a detailed study of the problem. So every bit of relevant evidence should be supported by logical reasoning and empirical facts. Materials should be organised systematically and presented under appropriate headings and subheadings. Each chapter should end with a summary and lead into the next section or chapter with a smooth transition sentence.

4.6       CONCLUSION, SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This is the last part of the text of the thesis. This chapter is more extensive than the abstract given in the beginning of the report. This chapter should be a self contained summary of the whole report, containing a summary of essential background, information, findings and conclusions and recommendations. It consists of the summary, conclusions or generalisation, suggestions and recommendations. The summary may be more or less a restatement of the topical sentences of the various findings. Summaries of findings may be subordinated under the conclusion statements. All these statements may be numbered or coded in some way so that they refer to pages or tables in the findings sections, upon which they are based. After a brief statement of the problem, the purpose of the study and the methodology used in the investigation, the findings and conclusions are presented. Findings are statements of factual information based upon the data analysis. Conclusions are inferences or generalisations drawn from the findings and relate to hypotheses. They are answers to the questions of the hypothesis proposed . The formulation of conclusion is the most difficult aspect of report writings. A research may sometimes be tempted to over generalise . Hence it is necessary to be modest.

Besides summary and conclusion, recommendations are also required from the investigator . Recommendations are typically brief statements of a limited number of suggestions for further consideration. These should flow from the findings and conclusions. They should be specific and should not be mere vague statements. Suggestions must be practicable and based on logical reasoning and are to be given at the end of the report. The research report should aim to give leads to future research scholars. The researcher should be able to give directions to the future researchers from the insights he has gained during the investigations. Hence, it may be appropriate in concluding this part of the report to indicate topics which need further research, i.e., the reporter should explain in the beginning the relationship of his research to previous work on the subject (review literature) and at last suggest what part of the field would more benefit, perhaps on a bigger scale or from a different angle.

4.7       REFERENCE MATERIAL

The core part of the thesis is followed by the end part containing the appendices and the bibliography. Thus the end part of the report is made up of : Bibliography (2) Appendices (3) Index

Bibliography

A bibliography means a list of written sources consulted in preparation of the report during the course of research. It lists all published and unpublished references used by the writer in preparing the report. It may refer to all documents like books, periodicals , articles, government documents, pamphlets, lectures, interviews etc, which have bearing on the thesis irrespective of their being actually referred to or not, in the text. The aim is to permit the reader to find the exact items the writer consulted. There are different kinds of bibliography like, References or literature cited comprises a list of documents which is confined only to those works actually cited in text or the footnotes of the report. Sources consulted consist of a comprehensive listing of books and papers consulted including those which are not strictly relevant to the subject of the thesis. Selected bibliography contains those sources cited, together with the more relevant of the works which have been consulted. Bibliographical notes is a brief annoted bibliography where the references are combined with the bibliography list.

Bibliography may be arranged according to the alphabetical order, chronological order, divisions of the subject etc. Generally the simplest and best arrangement for a short bibliography is the alphabetical order. Here the last name of the author (surname) is listed first, separated from the full name and arrange it alphabetically by surname. Some list of books is most convenient if arranged in the chronological order of the publication. This is suited for works in history. Writers sometimes desire to make separate divisions for primary and secondary sources. But usual practice favours one comprehensive listing of both the sources together. Alternatively, the bibliography may be classified into three or four sections- (1) Books (2) Articles (3) Reports and (4) Other documents and in each section relevant references may be arranged in alphabetical order. The purpose of bibliography is different from that of footnotes. While bibliography is a list of all materials related to the topic of research, the footnotes specifically paraphrased materials are found. Care should be taken by the researcher while bibliography listing and it should be done in the proper format.

Appendix

An appendix is used for additional materials which has not found place in the main text. It includes (a) copies if data collection instruments like questionnaire used for the study or interview schedules,(b) technical details on sampling plan (c) complex and long primary tables (d) statistical computation (e) supporting documents or any other material evidence of considerable reference value. By relegating such supporting evidence to an appendix, the text of the report remains uncluttered yet the argument is not weakened because the interested reader can be directed to consult particular pages of an appendix for further detail. Thus those materials given in appendices are not directly essential for a understanding of the text, but useful as a supporting evidence. Appendices may be placed between the final chapter and the bibliography or immediately after the bibliography. All appendices should be separated and listed accordingly in the Table of contents together with page numbers. Here pages are numbered usually having Arabic numerals. Each appendix should be referred to in the body of the thesis.

Index

The index, if prepared should give an alphabetically arranged references to all important matters discussed in the report. It may be either subject index or another index. To conclude, we can say that a thesis or a research report is an authoritative document based on research work. It presents highly specific information. The written reports will be useful only when they are well prepared and while preparing the report due attention has to be paid to represent the above mentioned components. Then only the report will be properly organised and can be communicated to others.

Check Your Progress I

4.8       LET US SUM UP

This unit deals with the prescriptions of contents and form of reporting suitable for communicating the results of the research to others. Mainly, the research report is divided into three parts, i.e., preliminary, main body of the report and the reference materials. All these three sections consist of different components which are studied in detail in this unit. Many of the components among this are familiar to all. But some others are not so. This unit explain the standard way of presenting such components also along with the familiar elements. This helps us to follow established standards while reporting and this make the thesis comprehensive and accurate.

4.9       KEY WORDS

Rhetoric              :   Art of writing.

Variable              :   A quality which changes.

Exposition           :   Explanation of a theory.

Hypothesis          :   Suggested explanation of something.

Index                   :   Alphabetical list of inferences.

Preface               :   Introduction to book.