Indian Phil.

1. Explain the nature of philosophy. Discuss the specific characteristics of Indian Philosophy.

Nature of philosohpy

The literal meaning of the word ‘philosophy’ is ‘love of wisdom,’ which has been split into ‘philo’ and ‘sophia.’ Mainly philosophy deals with the perennial problems of life. As life is a complex and complicated phenomenon, the role of philosophy is immense in making an enquiry into the issues emerging in human life. Issues concerning with social, political, moral, religious, racial, cultural, linguistic and economic spheres, confront human beings; the impact of philosophical investigation gains significance in explicating the real meaning or goal of life.

The specific characteristics of Indian Philosophy:

i).         The Goal of life: Moksa or Liberation

Basically all the schools of Indian thought emphatically declare that moksa or liberation is or should be the ultimate goal of life. Only the puranas describe the life after death pointing out the existence of hell and heaven with popular anecdotes.  Intellectually it implies that one must free oneself from the cycle of births and deaths by putting an end once for all to the strife-torn life. To achieve this ambitious goal, the Indian philosophers suggest certain means starting from lower values to reach higher and the highest values. Wealth and sensuous enjoyment are considered as having lower values, while dharma or righteousness is regarded as the higher value. Obviously moksha is the highest value.

ii).        Law of detachment leading to eternal solace

Indian Philosophy expects the seekers after truth and release to lead a life of renunciation.  The life of attachment will engender suffering while the life of detachment will result in eternal solace. In the Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krishna categorically asserts that a life of renunciation alone will enable the aspirants to reach the domain of God.  In fact, suffering or painful experience in life give the motivating force to promote new vistas of thinking and acting. Buddha built up philosophical doctrines on the edifice of suffering and all his noble truths centred around this concept only. 

iii). Low of suffering

Indian thinking though starts with pessimism passes through optimism and culminates in eternal pragmatism. The Indian thinkers have realised the truth that a vision without a mission is blind; a mission without a vision is drudgery and a healthy combination of both vision and mission will make human life prosperous. The pleasure which we enjoy is mixed with pain is engendered in painful situation. The seers assert that it is possible to eliminate pain alltogether and enjoy a life of bliss, ananda.

iv). The HIERARFHY of values

Indian thinkers have classified as lower values, higher value and the highest value. The axiological approach in human life becomes immense in this analysis. Carvaka system considers kama, sensuous pleasure as the only human value, purusartha, while artha or wealth serves as the means to achieve such ambitious aims. But the orthodox schools treat both kama and artha as the lowest and lower values respectively. They cannot annihilate the human afflictions thoroughly. They are to be checked and continued as to regularise normal human existence.  On the other hand they consider dharma, righteousness, as the higher value and moksa as the highest value.

v). Law of karma

Karma is based on the scientific law that all actions have equal and opposite reactions and the famous adage, ‘As you sow, so you reap.’ All the actions will yield the results and the efficacy of the fruits is known as ‘karma’ which has been derived from the root kr, which means action. The karmas which cause us to take birth and store up while we are born is known as sancita karma.The karmas which have started yielding the fruits are known as prarbdha karma and the karmas which we accumulate through our volitional behaviour are known as agamic karmas.

vi). IMPORTANCE OF RELIGION IN PHILOSOPHY:

Religion, an important branch of philosophy, also plays a vital role in Indian thought. Vedic religion is the starting point of philosophy in India. Vedantic thought, especially visistadvaita and Dvaita are directly based on vaishnava religious tradition.  Saiva Siddhanta has Saivism and worship of Siva as the religious basis. Advaita at the empirical level does not deny the concept of Isvara and resorting to religious practices.

2. Explain the Mimamsa theory of knowledge.

 a).  Nature and Sources of knowledge

Knowledge is that which gives some new information about something, and is not contradicted by another knowledge and which is not generated by defective conditions is valid knowledge. Mimamsa admits two kinds of valid knowledge – immediate and mediate.

b). Mimamsa understanding of Comparison

After Nyaya, Mimamsa accepts comparison as an independent source of knowledge. However Mimamsa differs from Nyaya school of philosophy. To the Mimamsa, we do not get knowledge of the new object from the knowledge of similarity that exists between this object and the known object but we get the knowledge of similarity that is there between the object that is seen and the remembered object.

c).Mimamsa understanding of sabda

Sabda is knowledge obtained from verbal authority. This source of knowledge is very important for the Mimamsakas. It is with this that they Again, authority may either give information on the existence of something or merely give directions for the performance of an action. Mimamsa is interested only in the knowledge from the Vedas and that too, about the injunctions laid down in it regarding the performance of certain actions.

d).Mimamsa understanding of non-perception (anupalabdhi)

This source of knowledge is accepted by one of the schools of Mimamsa – namely, Bhatta school of Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta. To them, nonperception is the source of our immediate knowledge of non-existence of a thing. I say that a jar does not exist here only because I do not perceive it.This is non-perception. That is, we should not conclude that all non-perception leads to the conclusion of non-existence of what is not perceived. We do not perceive a table in the dark; nor do we perceive such supersensible entities as atoms, ether, virtue, vice etc. yet, we do not judge them to be non-existent. Why? This is because, if a thing should have been perceived under certain circumstances, only then its non-perception under those circumstances would give us the knowledge of non-existence of that entity.

e).Validity of Knowledge

Validity of knowledge according to Mimamsa is called svatah pramanyavada. For example, if I have to see a thing, my eye should be free of defect. If there is defect in my eye, then, I cannot see the thing clearly. Hence, the condition that generates knowledge should be free of defect. Only this will result in valid knowledge. Moreover, this knowledge should be beyond doubt. Mimamsa draws two conclusions from this: (a) the validity of knowledge arises from the very conditions that give rise to that knowledge, and not from any extra conditions (pramanyam svatah utpadyate). (b) the validity of knowledge is also believed in or known as soon as the knowledge arises; this belief does not wait for any verification by something else. This Mimamsa view is known as the theory of intrinsic validity (svatah pramanyavada).

3. A) Briefly describe the ethical position of the Carvakas.

The Carvaka ethics is based on the assumption that the human beings get annihilated at the point of death. Carvakas do not believe in the theory of karma and accordingly they reject the notion of re-birth after death. Since this is the only life for the individual, their exhortation is: “make the best use of it.” To get the best out of this only life, one has to enjoy this life and to seek the utmost pleasure. Some of the sayings of Carvakas encourage us not to be bogged down by the presence of pain in the process of seeking pleasure: “None gives up eating fish because there are bones and scales;” “Roses are not discarded because they have thorns;” “In all of  these sayings the Carvakas call upon the people to enjoy pleasure at all times. Thus pleasure is the natural ethical principle. A Carvaka lives in the moment for the moment. They exhort the human beings not to ignore a present pleasure in the hope of gaining some greater pleasure later. They debunk all religious practices and rituals. One of the reasons for their rejection is that they falsely promise people a good future life but in reality the religious rituals are mechanisms of priests to exploit others and make a living out of it.

From the above passage it is clear that the Carvaka's emphasis is  on the individual, rather than any collective, good; accordingly, the Carvakas  accept only two of the four purusarthas  or traditional human values, namely, attainment of worldly pleasure (kama) and the means of securing it (artha = wealth), thus rejecting religious merit (dharma) and liberation (moksha).

C). Explain the eightfold path of the Yoga system. Discuss its goals.

1. Yama (Self-restrained)

 Yama is the control of the body, speech and mind. It means abstention. The Yamas are five which are as follows.  i) Non-violence ii) Truth iii) Non-stealing iv) Celibacy v) Non-possession: All the above mentioned yamas are necessary for the concentration of chitta.

2. Niyama (Positive rules of conduct)

Another important step in Yoga is Niyama or following the rules of    good conduct. These Niyamas are five which are as follows: i) Purity ii) Contentment   iii) Right aspiration (tapas):  This helps the aspirant in the practice of Yoga.

3. Asana

The third step in the advancement of yoga is Asana or posture. It means steady and comfortable posture. Asana emphasizes the importance of correct and comfortable bodily posture before one begins meditation.

4. Pranayama

It means control of breath and deals with regulation of inhalation, retention and exhalation of breath. The regulating of breathing process helps considerably to bring the mind under control.

5. Prathyahara

It is the control of the senses and consists in withdrawing the senses from their objects. Our senses have a natural tendency to go to outward objects and they perceive the facts of Prakrti.

6. Dharana

It is fixing of the mind on the object of meditation. Here the mind is steadied by making all our thoughts flow in single unbroken channel. Ordinarily the mind is easily disturbed.

7. Dhyana

 It means meditation and consists in the undisturbed flow of thought round the object of meditation. It is steadfast contemplation without any break. When the process of thought is continuous, it is called dhyana

8. Samadhi: it is the final step in Yoga. It means concentration. Here the mind is completely absorbed in the object of meditation. It is the highest means to realize the cessation of mental modifications which is the end.

4. a)Briefly explain the three means to liberation according to the Gita.

Indian Philosophy expects the seekers after truth and release to lead a life of renunciation.  The life of attachment will engender suffering while the life of detachment will result in eternal solace. In the Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krishna categorically asserts that a life of renunciation alone will enable the aspirants to reach the domain of God. Only when the mind is purified through non-attachment, it will have pure and perfect wisdom and rest on self-illumination, the real prelude to moksha. In fact, suffering or painful experience in life give the motivating force to promote new vistas of thinking and acting. Buddha built up philosophical doctrines on the edifice of suffering and all his noble truths centered around this concept only.  The only difference that is noticed among the schools of philosophy is that according to the theistic thinkers only by the grace of God one can overcome suffering, while others insist upon individual efforts through moral, physical, psychological and spiritual means.

c) Briefly explain the Jaina Theory of Judgement or Syadvada.

It is the conception of reality as extremely indeterminate which is the basis of syadvada.  The seven types of judgments are as follows:

a) Syat asti –‘somehow S is P’ A jar is red                                                                                            b) Syat nasti – ‘ somehow S may not be P’. A jar may not be red.                                                                   c)  Syat avaktavyam – ‘somehow S may be indescribable’. The redness of jar cannot be described adequately.                                                                                                                                            d)  Syat asti ca nasti ca –  ‘somehow S may be or may not be  P’. This argument does not involve contradiction. Normally logic considers a judgment to be contradictory only when it holds that ‘S’ is both ‘P’ and ‘not P’, because the same ‘S’ is ‘P’ from one angle and ‘not P’ from another angle. That is why this judgment is accepted by the Jainas.                                                                                 e) syat asti ca avaktavyam ca – somehow ‘S’ is ‘P’ and is indescribable.                                                     f)      syat nasti ca avaktavyan ca- somehow ‘S’ is ‘not P’ and is indescribable.                         g)          syat asti ca nasti ca avaktavyam ca- somehow ‘S’ is ‘P’ ‘not P’ and indescribable. These seven steps form a part of what is known as saptabhanginaya or the seven fold judgments. According to this theory every judgment is only partial or relative.

e) What is the Nature of Universal Religion according to Vivekananda.

A religion is said to be a universal religion only if it is able to fulfill at least two conditions. First, it must be open to all individuals. Secondly, it must provide satisfaction and comfort to every religious sect. Vivekananda is on that opinion that such religion is already there. One fails to recognize its presence as he\she is lost in the external conflicts of religions. First of all, religions are not contradictory to each other but they are complementary to each other. Problem arises when each religion concentrates only on one aspect of religion. Secondly, Vivekananda makes it clear that there can be contradictory views of the same thing. We view, understand and grasp the truth in our peculiar way. But they are basically of the same reality and therefore complementary to each other. By universal religion, Vivekananda does not mean a religion that will have one universal philosophy, one universal mythology or one universal ritual. The spirit of universal religion demands that one should have the respect for the other ones.

f) Briefly explain Aurobindo’s concept of the Sacidananda.

The highest positive expression of the Reality to our consciousness is Sacidananda. Sacidananda is the one with a triple aspect.  For us, the highest positive expression of Brahman is the Sacidananda or Existence - consciousness - bliss, all in all. In other words, in the Supreme the three are not three but one; existence is consciousness, consciousness is bliss and they are not distinct at all.  It manifests itself as indeterminate as well as determinate, as nirguna as well as saguna, as one as well as many, as being as well as becoming and yet it transcends them all.  The existence (sat) of Brahman is that which appears to us as Atman, Ishwara and Purusha.  The consciousness (chit) of Brahman which is always a force (shakti) manifests itself as maya, shakti and prakriti. The Bliss (anand of Brahman underlies all these manifestations and it is out of sheer bliss that Divine manifests himself as this world.  These three aspects and these powers embrace all reality and when taken as a whole, reconcile all apparent contradictions.

5. b)Prapatti

Prapatti, like Bhakti, is only a kind of mental attitude towards God. If one thinks one can please God by one's own personal efforts like kirtana, vandana, etc. one is called a Bhakta. If however, one feels convinced that one cannot please God by one's own personal efforts, and that nothing apart form God’s grace can save him or her, one becomes a Prapanna. Prapatti needs to  be done only once.  It need not be done again and again, as Bhakti.

c) Anekantavada

This is one of the most important and fundamental doctrines of Jainism. It refers to the principles of pluralism and multiplicity of viewpoints, the notion that truth and reality are perceived differently from diverse points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth. This is the metaphysical theory of reality as many–faced. 

e) Nishkama Karma

This is the one of the most impotant doctrine of Gita. The most important element in the Gita is the doctrine of nishkama karma which consists in    discharging obligations in an impersonal manner.  This attitude literally debars yagas because one performs it with selfish motive. The Gita however, never advocated that karma should be renounced. What it clearly asserts is that ‘Karma Phala’ should be renounced.  It only sidelines personal interest and upholds societal interest. 

f) Purusarthas

Purusarthas is one of the Inidian philosophies. It is the Supreme goals of human life, like wealth, pleasure, righteousness and liberation. Indian philosophy spells out supreme goals of human life as purusarthas. Indian Philosophy expects the seekers after truth to lead a life of renunciation. The seers assert that it is possible to eliminate pain all together and enjoy a life of bliss, ananda. Hence they are seriously concerned with sat, existence which is the truth also, cit (consciousness), and ananda (everlasting happiness).

g) Darsana

Indian term used generally to mean ‘Philosophy.’ Literally it means ‘seeing’ or ‘having a glimpse’ of truth.Indian philosophy has been designated as ‘darsana’ which is generally translated as philosophy, but it really means intutitve vision.  ‘Philosophy’ is accepted as the nearest equivalent term to darsana. Indian philosophy spells out supreme goals of human life as purusarthas. Indian Philosophy expects the seekers after truth to lead a life of renunciation. The seers assert that it is possible to eliminate pain all together and enjoy a life of bliss, ananda. Indian philosophy has been designated as ‘darsana’ which is generally translated as philosophy, but it is really means intutive vision. ‘philosophy’ is accepted as the nearest equivalent term to darsana.