Indian Phil.

1. Explain the nature of philosophy. Discuss the specific characteristics of Indian Philosophy.

Nature of philosohpy

The literal meaning of the word ‘philosophy’ is ‘love of wisdom,’ which has been split into ‘philo’ and ‘sophia.’ Mainly philosophy deals with the perennial problems of life. As life is a complex and complicated phenomenon, the role of philosophy is immense in making an enquiry into the issues emerging in human life. Issues concerning with social, political, moral, religious, racial, cultural, linguistic and economic spheres, confront human beings; the impact of philosophical investigation gains significance in explicating the real meaning or goal of life.

The specific characteristics of Indian Philosophy:

i).         The Goal of life: Moksa or Liberation

Basically all the schools of Indian thought emphatically declare that moksa or liberation is or should be the ultimate goal of life. Only the puranas describe the life after death pointing out the existence of hell and heaven with popular anecdotes.  Intellectually it implies that one must free oneself from the cycle of births and deaths by putting an end once for all to the strife-torn life. To achieve this ambitious goal, the Indian philosophers suggest certain means starting from lower values to reach higher and the highest values. Wealth and sensuous enjoyment are considered as having lower values, while dharma or righteousness is regarded as the higher value. Obviously moksha is the highest value.

ii).        Law of detachment leading to eternal solace

Indian Philosophy expects the seekers after truth and release to lead a life of renunciation.  The life of attachment will engender suffering while the life of detachment will result in eternal solace. In the Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krishna categorically asserts that a life of renunciation alone will enable the aspirants to reach the domain of God.  In fact, suffering or painful experience in life give the motivating force to promote new vistas of thinking and acting. Buddha built up philosophical doctrines on the edifice of suffering and all his noble truths centred around this concept only. 

iii). Low of suffering

Indian thinking though starts with pessimism passes through optimism and culminates in eternal pragmatism. The Indian thinkers have realised the truth that a vision without a mission is blind; a mission without a vision is drudgery and a healthy combination of both vision and mission will make human life prosperous. The pleasure which we enjoy is mixed with pain is engendered in painful situation. The seers assert that it is possible to eliminate pain alltogether and enjoy a life of bliss, ananda.

iv). The HIERARFHY of values

Indian thinkers have classified as lower values, higher value and the highest value. The axiological approach in human life becomes immense in this analysis. Carvaka system considers kama, sensuous pleasure as the only human value, purusartha, while artha or wealth serves as the means to achieve such ambitious aims. But the orthodox schools treat both kama and artha as the lowest and lower values respectively. They cannot annihilate the human afflictions thoroughly. They are to be checked and continued as to regularise normal human existence.  On the other hand they consider dharma, righteousness, as the higher value and moksa as the highest value.

v). Law of karma

Karma is based on the scientific law that all actions have equal and opposite reactions and the famous adage, ‘As you sow, so you reap.’ All the actions will yield the results and the efficacy of the fruits is known as ‘karma’ which has been derived from the root kr, which means action. The karmas which cause us to take birth and store up while we are born is known as sancita karma.The karmas which have started yielding the fruits are known as prarbdha karma and the karmas which we accumulate through our volitional behaviour are known as agamic karmas.

vi). IMPORTANCE OF RELIGION IN PHILOSOPHY:

Religion, an important branch of philosophy, also plays a vital role in Indian thought. Vedic religion is the starting point of philosophy in India. Vedantic thought, especially visistadvaita and Dvaita are directly based on vaishnava religious tradition.  Saiva Siddhanta has Saivism and worship of Siva as the religious basis. Advaita at the empirical level does not deny the concept of Isvara and resorting to religious practices.

2. Explain the Mimamsa theory of knowledge.

 a).  Nature and Sources of knowledge

Knowledge is that which gives some new information about something, and is not contradicted by another knowledge and which is not generated by defective conditions is valid knowledge. Mimamsa admits two kinds of valid knowledge – immediate and mediate.

b). Mimamsa understanding of Comparison

After Nyaya, Mimamsa accepts comparison as an independent source of knowledge. However Mimamsa differs from Nyaya school of philosophy. To the Mimamsa, we do not get knowledge of the new object from the knowledge of similarity that exists between this object and the known object but we get the knowledge of similarity that is there between the object that is seen and the remembered object.

c).Mimamsa understanding of sabda

Sabda is knowledge obtained from verbal authority. This source of knowledge is very important for the Mimamsakas. It is with this that they Again, authority may either give information on the existence of something or merely give directions for the performance of an action. Mimamsa is interested only in the knowledge from the Vedas and that too, about the injunctions laid down in it regarding the performance of certain actions.

d).Mimamsa understanding of non-perception (anupalabdhi)

This source of knowledge is accepted by one of the schools of Mimamsa – namely, Bhatta school of Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta. To them, nonperception is the source of our immediate knowledge of non-existence of a thing. I say that a jar does not exist here only because I do not perceive it.This is non-perception. That is, we should not conclude that all non-perception leads to the conclusion of non-existence of what is not perceived. We do not perceive a table in the dark; nor do we perceive such supersensible entities as atoms, ether, virtue, vice etc. yet, we do not judge them to be non-existent. Why? This is because, if a thing should have been perceived under certain circumstances, only then its non-perception under those circumstances would give us the knowledge of non-existence of that entity.

e).Validity of Knowledge

Validity of knowledge according to Mimamsa is called svatah pramanyavada. For example, if I have to see a thing, my eye should be free of defect. If there is defect in my eye, then, I cannot see the thing clearly. Hence, the condition that generates knowledge should be free of defect. Only this will result in valid knowledge. Moreover, this knowledge should be beyond doubt. Mimamsa draws two conclusions from this: (a) the validity of knowledge arises from the very conditions that give rise to that knowledge, and not from any extra conditions (pramanyam svatah utpadyate). (b) the validity of knowledge is also believed in or known as soon as the knowledge arises; this belief does not wait for any verification by something else. This Mimamsa view is known as the theory of intrinsic validity (svatah pramanyavada).

3. A) Briefly describe the ethical position of the Carvakas.

The Carvaka ethics is based on the assumption that the human beings get annihilated at the point of death. Carvakas do not believe in the theory of karma and accordingly they reject the notion of re-birth after death. Since this is the only life for the individual, their exhortation is: “make the best use of it.” To get the best out of this only life, one has to enjoy this life and to seek the utmost pleasure. Some of the sayings of Carvakas encourage us not to be bogged down by the presence of pain in the process of seeking pleasure: “None gives up eating fish because there are bones and scales;” “Roses are not discarded because they have thorns;” “In all of  these sayings the Carvakas call upon the people to enjoy pleasure at all times. Thus pleasure is the natural ethical principle. A Carvaka lives in the moment for the moment. They exhort the human beings not to ignore a present pleasure in the hope of gaining some greater pleasure later. They debunk all religious practices and rituals. One of the reasons for their rejection is that they falsely promise people a good future life but in reality the religious rituals are mechanisms of priests to exploit others and make a living out of it.

From the above passage it is clear that the Carvaka's emphasis is  on the individual, rather than any collective, good; accordingly, the Carvakas  accept only two of the four purusarthas  or traditional human values, namely, attainment of worldly pleasure (kama) and the means of securing it (artha = wealth), thus rejecting religious merit (dharma) and liberation (moksha).

C). Explain the eightfold path of the Yoga system. Discuss its goals.

1. Yama (Self-restrained)

 Yama is the control of the body, speech and mind. It means abstention. The Yamas are five which are as follows.  i) Non-violence ii) Truth iii) Non-stealing iv) Celibacy v) Non-possession: All the above mentioned yamas are necessary for the concentration of chitta.

2. Niyama (Positive rules of conduct)

Another important step in Yoga is Niyama or following the rules of    good conduct. These Niyamas are five which are as follows: i) Purity ii) Contentment   iii) Right aspiration (tapas):  This helps the aspirant in the practice of Yoga.

3. Asana

The third step in the advancement of yoga is Asana or posture. It means steady and comfortable posture. Asana emphasizes the importance of correct and comfortable bodily posture before one begins meditation.

4. Pranayama

It means control of breath and deals with regulation of inhalation, retention and exhalation of breath. The regulating of breathing process helps considerably to bring the mind under control.

5. Prathyahara

It is the control of the senses and consists in withdrawing the senses from their objects. Our senses have a natural tendency to go to outward objects and they perceive the facts of Prakrti.

6. Dharana

It is fixing of the mind on the object of meditation. Here the mind is steadied by making all our thoughts flow in single unbroken channel. Ordinarily the mind is easily disturbed.

7. Dhyana

 It means meditation and consists in the undisturbed flow of thought round the object of meditation. It is steadfast contemplation without any break. When the process of thought is continuous, it is called dhyana

8. Samadhi: it is the final step in Yoga. It means concentration. Here the mind is completely absorbed in the object of meditation. It is the highest means to realize the cessation of mental modifications which is the end.

4. a)Briefly explain the three means to liberation according to the Gita.

Indian Philosophy expects the seekers after truth and release to lead a life of renunciation.  The life of attachment will engender suffering while the life of detachment will result in eternal solace. In the Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krishna categorically asserts that a life of renunciation alone will enable the aspirants to reach the domain of God. Only when the mind is purified through non-attachment, it will have pure and perfect wisdom and rest on self-illumination, the real prelude to moksha. In fact, suffering or painful experience in life give the motivating force to promote new vistas of thinking and acting. Buddha built up philosophical doctrines on the edifice of suffering and all his noble truths centered around this concept only.  The only difference that is noticed among the schools of philosophy is that according to the theistic thinkers only by the grace of God one can overcome suffering, while others insist upon individual efforts through moral, physical, psychological and spiritual means.

c) Briefly explain the Jaina Theory of Judgement or Syadvada.

It is the conception of reality as extremely indeterminate which is the basis of syadvada.  The seven types of judgments are as follows:

a) Syat asti –‘somehow S is P’ A jar is red                                                                                            b) Syat nasti – ‘ somehow S may not be P’. A jar may not be red.                                                                   c)  Syat avaktavyam – ‘somehow S may be indescribable’. The redness of jar cannot be described adequately.                                                                                                                                            d)  Syat asti ca nasti ca –  ‘somehow S may be or may not be  P’. This argument does not involve contradiction. Normally logic considers a judgment to be contradictory only when it holds that ‘S’ is both ‘P’ and ‘not P’, because the same ‘S’ is ‘P’ from one angle and ‘not P’ from another angle. That is why this judgment is accepted by the Jainas.                                                                                 e) syat asti ca avaktavyam ca – somehow ‘S’ is ‘P’ and is indescribable.                                                     f)      syat nasti ca avaktavyan ca- somehow ‘S’ is ‘not P’ and is indescribable.                         g)          syat asti ca nasti ca avaktavyam ca- somehow ‘S’ is ‘P’ ‘not P’ and indescribable. These seven steps form a part of what is known as saptabhanginaya or the seven fold judgments. According to this theory every judgment is only partial or relative.

e) What is the Nature of Universal Religion according to Vivekananda.

A religion is said to be a universal religion only if it is able to fulfill at least two conditions. First, it must be open to all individuals. Secondly, it must provide satisfaction and comfort to every religious sect. Vivekananda is on that opinion that such religion is already there. One fails to recognize its presence as he\she is lost in the external conflicts of religions. First of all, religions are not contradictory to each other but they are complementary to each other. Problem arises when each religion concentrates only on one aspect of religion. Secondly, Vivekananda makes it clear that there can be contradictory views of the same thing. We view, understand and grasp the truth in our peculiar way. But they are basically of the same reality and therefore complementary to each other. By universal religion, Vivekananda does not mean a religion that will have one universal philosophy, one universal mythology or one universal ritual. The spirit of universal religion demands that one should have the respect for the other ones.

f) Briefly explain Aurobindo’s concept of the Sacidananda.

The highest positive expression of the Reality to our consciousness is Sacidananda. Sacidananda is the one with a triple aspect.  For us, the highest positive expression of Brahman is the Sacidananda or Existence - consciousness - bliss, all in all. In other words, in the Supreme the three are not three but one; existence is consciousness, consciousness is bliss and they are not distinct at all.  It manifests itself as indeterminate as well as determinate, as nirguna as well as saguna, as one as well as many, as being as well as becoming and yet it transcends them all.  The existence (sat) of Brahman is that which appears to us as Atman, Ishwara and Purusha.  The consciousness (chit) of Brahman which is always a force (shakti) manifests itself as maya, shakti and prakriti. The Bliss (anand of Brahman underlies all these manifestations and it is out of sheer bliss that Divine manifests himself as this world.  These three aspects and these powers embrace all reality and when taken as a whole, reconcile all apparent contradictions.

5. b)Prapatti

Prapatti, like Bhakti, is only a kind of mental attitude towards God. If one thinks one can please God by one's own personal efforts like kirtana, vandana, etc. one is called a Bhakta. If however, one feels convinced that one cannot please God by one's own personal efforts, and that nothing apart form God’s grace can save him or her, one becomes a Prapanna. Prapatti needs to  be done only once.  It need not be done again and again, as Bhakti.

c) Anekantavada

This is one of the most important and fundamental doctrines of Jainism. It refers to the principles of pluralism and multiplicity of viewpoints, the notion that truth and reality are perceived differently from diverse points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth. This is the metaphysical theory of reality as many–faced. 

e) Nishkama Karma

This is the one of the most impotant doctrine of Gita. The most important element in the Gita is the doctrine of nishkama karma which consists in    discharging obligations in an impersonal manner.  This attitude literally debars yagas because one performs it with selfish motive. The Gita however, never advocated that karma should be renounced. What it clearly asserts is that ‘Karma Phala’ should be renounced.  It only sidelines personal interest and upholds societal interest. 

f) Purusarthas

Purusarthas is one of the Inidian philosophies. It is the Supreme goals of human life, like wealth, pleasure, righteousness and liberation. Indian philosophy spells out supreme goals of human life as purusarthas. Indian Philosophy expects the seekers after truth to lead a life of renunciation. The seers assert that it is possible to eliminate pain all together and enjoy a life of bliss, ananda. Hence they are seriously concerned with sat, existence which is the truth also, cit (consciousness), and ananda (everlasting happiness).

g) Darsana

Indian term used generally to mean ‘Philosophy.’ Literally it means ‘seeing’ or ‘having a glimpse’ of truth.Indian philosophy has been designated as ‘darsana’ which is generally translated as philosophy, but it really means intutitve vision.  ‘Philosophy’ is accepted as the nearest equivalent term to darsana. Indian philosophy spells out supreme goals of human life as purusarthas. Indian Philosophy expects the seekers after truth to lead a life of renunciation. The seers assert that it is possible to eliminate pain all together and enjoy a life of bliss, ananda. Indian philosophy has been designated as ‘darsana’ which is generally translated as philosophy, but it is really means intutive vision. ‘philosophy’ is accepted as the nearest equivalent term to darsana.

                                                                                                                       

                     

Phil.of Human person

1. How does Heidegger explain “living as authentic existence”? Discuss his concept of

being in the world.

Living as authentic existence

 Authentic existence can only come into being when individuals arrive at the realisation of who they are and grasp the fact that each human being is a distinctive entity. Once human beings realise that they have their own destiny to fulfill, then their concern with the world will no longer be the concern to do as the masses do, but can become an ‘authentic’ concern to fulfill their real potentiality in the world.

Heidegger described the self of everyday Dasein as the ‘they-self’, “which we distinguish from the authentic Self – that is, from the Self which has been taken hold of in its own way [eigens ergriffenen]. As they-self, the particular Dasein has been dispersed into the ‘they’, and must first find itself.” And further “If Dasein discovers the world in its own way [eigens] and brings it close, if it discloses to itself its own authentic Being, then this discovery of the ‘world’ and this disclosure of Dasein are always accomplished as a clearing-away of concealments and obscurities, as a breaking up of the disguises with which Dasein bars its own way.” Heidegger   said that deliberation on these matters have brought about a solid understanding of Dasein bringing the average everydayness of Being-in-the-world into view.

Heidegger felt that the all-determining focal point of our Being-in-the-world was being ignored because the daily realities of our existence are so trite and numerous but, for Heidegger, ‘knowing’ was a kind of Being and Dasein only discovers itself when it comprehends reality. Knowledge is not an inexplicable bound from subject to object and return (Steiner 1978), But as soon as the ‘phenomenon of knowing the world’  is grasped it is interpreted, unfortunately, in a ‘superficial’ or formal manner. The evidence for this is the procedure (still customary today) of setting up knowing as a ‘relation between subject and Object’ – a procedure in which there lurks as much ‘truth’ as vacuity. But subject and object do not really coincide with Dasein and the world. (Hornsby 2010)

Being in the world

 Being-in-the-world is Heidegger's replacement for terms such as subject, object, consciousness, and world. For him, the split of things into subject/object, as we find in the Western tradition and even in our language, must be overcome. Heidegger said that Being-in-the-world is a being-with, and that the understanding of the presentness of others is to exist. However, being-with presents the possibility of comprehending our own Dasein as an everyday Being-with-one-another where we may come to exist not on our own terms, but only in reference to others. In so doing, we eventually come to not be ourselves, and surrender our existence to a formless ‘Theyness’ or alterity.

For Heidegger, the ‘belonging to others’ is a drastic irresponsibility because the ‘they’ deprives the particular Dasein of its own accountability by making every decision and judgement for it. The ‘they’ can do this most easily because it can always be said that ‘they’ were responsible for such and such. Heidegger said that this passivity creates the alienated self, the ‘Man’ who is fatally disburdened of moral autonomy and, therefore, of moral responsibility. This ‘Man’ can know no ethical guilt. Heidegger called this the ‘self of everyday Dasein’ or the ‘they-self’, the total opposite of the solid singularity of a Dasein which has grasped itself. This crucial distinction was important for Heidegger as it is the distinction between an authentic and an inauthentic human existence.

If the human being is really being-in-the-world, then this implies that the world itself is part of the fundamental constitution of human beings. In other words, I am not a free-floating self or ego facing a world of objects that stands over against me. Rather, for Heidegger, I am my world. The world is part and parcel of my being,  the real fabric of my existence. We might capture the sense of Heidegger's thought here by thinking of Dasein not as a subject distinct from a world of objects, but as an experience of openness where mostly my being and that of the world are not distinguished. I am completely fascinated and absorbed by my world, not cut off from it in some sort of "mind" or what Heidegger calls "the cabinet of consciousness"

2. Discuss human as dependent, inter-dependent and independent?

Human as dependent

Humans have, for the most part, taken themselves out of the “natural” world. We often overemphasize technological advances at the expense of the environment. Rapid exploitation of finite natural resources and uncontrolled waste are acceptable in many businesses as the only way to grow. The price of this way of thinking is starting to come into the light. Modern high-tech lifestyles are competitive instead of communal and cooperative. An effect of this competition is the human-created deserts in place of once lush forests. We have polluted virtually every corner of the planet. Instead of taking just what the environment can replenish, we tend to take it all--right now.

Most scientific concepts involve breaking living organisms into parts, labeling those parts, and treating those parts as something somehow separate from the whole organism. Most people believe that the universe is comprised of boundless building materials from which technological progress can flourish. In contrast, in the systems theory, the basic principle underlying life is processes. In a process, one thing depends on another. If one step in the process doesn’t occur, then the subsequent steps cannot occur. The system comes to a halt.

Human as inter-dependent

 From the above perspective, we can see how human beings are dependent on nature and also inter-dependent on each other. A powerful articulation of such respectful interdependence is made in 1854, when the U.S. President made an offer for a large area of Indian land and promised a "reservation" for the Indian people. Chief Seattle's reply, quoted below with modifications, has been described as the most beautiful and profound statement on the environment ever made. It speaks of the inter-dependence of the whole earth on each other (See Kochery 1998).

How can you buy or sell the sky, the warmth of the land? The idea is strange to us. If we do not own the freshness of the air and the sparkle of the water, how can you buy them? Every part of the earth is sacred to my people. Every shining pine needle, every sandy shore, every mist in the dark woods, every clearing and humming insect is holy in the memory and experience of my people. The sap which courses through the trees carries the memories of the red man. The white man’s dead forget the country of their birth when they go to walk among the stars. Our dead never forget their beautiful earth, for it is the mother of the red man. We are part of the earth and it is part of us. The perfumed flowers are our sisters; the horse, the great eagle, these are our brothers. The rocky crests, the body heat of the pony and man – all belong to the same family.

Human as independent

 There’s a big difference in asking “Are we free?” and “Are we really free?”. The former question implies an issue whose answer we are “in the dark” about. The latter format suggests that we are naturally and spontaneously inclined to hold that we are free: recent events or findings have surfaced so as to make us have second thoughts about it all. And this is precisely the case. Of course, we shall not just “take for granted” the fact of our freedom (that would be an unpardonable sin of dogmatism in philosophy): we shall cast about for reasons, evidences, “pointers” that would seem to confirm this “unphilosophical conviction” to which we all subscribe, consciously or unconsciously. After all, we commonsensical people just know we are free: for instance, right now I can reflect on my free reading of this page and realise that there is nothing internally that compels me to go on reading. At any time I can just put it down and go and do something else – it’s all up to me, to me and my freedom. On the other hand, there have been the studies of men like Freud and Skinner who appear to challenge this smug assurance of ours.

Is man free?

At times we feel within ourselves the need to be free, free from the demands and expectations of the society we live in. Since we are so much linked and depended on the society we cannot be really free to be what and who we are to be. It is because our values are based on the values given to us by the society and the media. But we have the real freedom and can be free if we can base our values on Love which will enable us to divest ourselves to attain full self realisation. Because our existence will depend on how we relate to other beings based on love. I am free if the real, deep down “I” is in control of my actions.

3. a) Explain the hierarchy of needs. What are some of the characteristics of the selfactualised

person?

The hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow stated that human motivation is based on people seeking fulfillment and change through personal growth, and according to him self-actualized people are those who were fulfilled and dong all they were capable of. He did not equate self actualization with perfection, Self-actualization merely involves achieving ones potential. The hierarchy of needs are biological and physiological needs like air, food, drink, shelter etc, safety needs protection from elements like security, order, law, etc., belongingness and love needs like work group, family, affection etc., esteem needs like self esteem, achievements, status, prestige, etc., cognitive needs like knowledge, meaning etc., Aesthetic needs like appreciation and search for beauty etc., and self actualization needs like realizing personal potential, self-fulfilment etc.

The characteristics of the self-actualized person

Maslow was particularly interested m the characteristics of people whom he considered to have achieved their potential as persons: his list included Albert Einstein, William James, Eleanor Roosevelt, Abraham Lincoln and Thomas Jefferson. Some of the characteristics of self-actualizers and some of the behaviours leading to self-actualisation are shown in the table below. Although individuals achieve self-actualisation in their own unique way, they tend to share certain characteristics. However, self-actualization is a matter of degree, since 'There are no perfect human beings' (Maslow), but we can all be tending to perfect and self-actualised persons.

•           They perceive reality efficiently and can tolerate uncertainty;

•           Accept themselves and others for what they are;

•           Spontaneous in thought and action;

•           Problem-centred (not self-centred);

.          Unusual sense of humour;

.          Able to look at life objectively;

.          Highly creative;

.          Resistant to enculturation, but not purposely unconventional;

.          Concerned for the welfare of humanity;

.          Capable of deep appreciation of basic life-experience;

b) What is the role of human being in the Existentialist Philosophy? Explain.

According to existentialists, human exist first and then each individual spends a lifetime changing their essence and nature – it is finding self and the meaning of life through free will, choice, and personal responsibility. The belief is that people are searching to find out who and what they are throughout life as they make choices based on their experiences, beliefs and outlook, and choices are unique without the necessity of an objective form of truth. They do not think laws and rules are important, what is important is personal choices based on personal responsibilities. They belief that a person is best when struggling against their individual nature, they do not distinguish between soul and body, body is a lived through experience that is an integral part of man’s existence in the world and soul or consciousness is constant openness toward the world, a transcendent relationship with other beings and in-itself. Consciousness is existence itself, is the manifestation of being.

In Existentialist thinkers, the traditional distinction between soul and body is completely eliminated; thus the body is a lived-through experience that is an integral part of man's existence in its relationship with the world. According to Jean Paul Sartre, "In each project of the For-itself, in each perception the body is there; it is the immediate Past in so far as it still touches on the Present which flees it." As such, however, the body is not reduced to a datum of consciousness, to subjective representation. Consciousness, according to Sartre, is constant openness toward the world, a transcendent relationship with other beings and thereby with the in-itself. Consciousness is existence itself, or, as Karl Jaspers says, it is "the manifestation of being." In order to avoid any subjectivistic equivocation, Martin Heidegger went so far as to renounce the use of the term consciousness, preferring the term Dasein, which is more appropriate for designating human reality in its totality. For the same reasons, the traditional opposition between subject and object, or between the self and the nonself, loses all sense in his existentialist understanding of human person. Dasein is always particular and individual.

4. a) Differentiate between philosophical anthropology and cultural anthropology.

The main difference between general anthropology and philosophical anthropology is the method employed. In philosophical anthropology we do not usually do any empirical study. No field study is undertaken. No experiments are carried out. Instead, based on the evidence suggested by other disciplines, philosophers analyse human condition theoretically. Thus many of the central themes of philosophical anthropology – identity, freedom, love, life after death, etc. – are unique to philosophical anthropology.

Cultural anthropology involves the scientific study of the origin, the behaviour, and the physical, social, and cultural development of humans. Thus  it is the study of humanity. Anthropology has origins in the natural sciences, the humanities, and the social sciences. The term "anthropology", was first used in 1501 by German philosopher Magnus Hundt.

The basic questions that anthropology poses are: "What defines Homo sapiens?", "Who are the ancestors of modern Homo sapiens?" "What are humans' physical traits?", "How do humans behave?", "Why are there variations and differences among different groups of humans?", "How has the evolutionary past of Homo sapiens influenced its social organization and culture?" and so forth

b) What is the difference between ‘self’ and ‘centre of gravity’?

Self

The Brahminical or orthodox (astika) schools of Indian philosophy, especially the Vedantins and the Nyaya-Vaisesika argue that the self or Atman is a substantial but non-material entity. The Katha and Chandogya Upanishads, for example, define the Brahminical conception of the self as follows: The light of the Atman, the spirit is invisible, concealed in all beings. It is seen by the seers of the subtle, when their vision is keen and clear. The Atman is beyond sound and form, without touch and taste and perfume. It is eternal, unchangeable, and without beginning or end: indeed above reasoning. The Upanisads puts it succinctly: “An invisible and subtle essence is the Spirit of the whole universe. That is Reality. That is Truth. THOU ART THAT.”

Centre of gravity: In physics, the centre of gravity is an imaginary point in a body of matter where, for convenience in certain calculations, the total weight of the body may be thought to be concentrated. The  centre of gravity, a well-behaved Newtonian concept is not an atom or a subatomic particle or any other physical item in the world. It has no mass; it has no colour; it has no physical properties at all, except for spatio-temporal location. It is a fine example of what Hans Reichenbach would call an abstractum. It is a purely abstract object. It is  a theorist’s fiction. It is not one of the real things in the universe in addition to the atoms. But it is a fiction that has a neatly defined, well delineated and well behaved role within physics

d) What is Sartre’s notion of death?

According to Jean-Paul Sartre, human freedom has no control over death that escapes him/her and can never give meaning to life. The very fact I am condemned to die makes my life absurd. If it is possible for me to find meaning in life, it is not because I am being-unto-death, but because I can exercise freedom when I exist. Thus Sartre considers death as a reality outside existence. With a little imagination, I can represent my corpse while I exist, but once I am dead, it is others who know my death, make funeral rites and cherish me in their memory. It is then absurd to say my death is my own.

f) What do you understand by a “dyadic” relationship?

According to Marcel, religious  experiences  of  Prayer,  faith,  contemplation   etc.,  becomes  a  dialogical  relationship  with  the  Thou,  a  mode  of   participation between the finite thou and the Absolute.  This  dialogical,  responsive  and  mutual  or  reciprocal  relationship  of   the  I  and  the  Thou  Marcel  described  as  a  ”dyadic"  relationship.  It  is  a  dyadic relation because it involves participation, presence and availability.

This dialogical, responsive and  mutual or reciprocal relationship of the I and the Thou Marcel described as a “dyadic” relationship. It is a dyadic relation because it involves participation, presence and availability. Basically the I-Thou relationship is “dyadic” because it contains some measure of "exclusiveness". It is exclusive of a third party beside the I and the thou, who may either try to verify or describe our experience of the communion. As Cain would say: "Three is, a crowd here, as in any I - Thou relationships. Rather, I -thou relations is personal, a relation between me and the thou and as such defies any verification from outside as is   characteristic of all ontological participations. 

5. a) Thrownness

Heidegger proclaimed that we are ‘thrown’ into the world and that our Being-in-the-world is a ‘thrownness’ [Geworfenheit]. To Heidegger this concept is a primordial banality which had long been overlooked by metaphysical conjecture. Humans beings are thrown with neither prior knowledge nor individual option into a world that was there before and will remain there after they are gone.

b) Appetite

Though in common parlance, this word is used exclusively with reference to our craving for food, it seems worthwhile to extend this term in a general sense to every human (hence, more or less conscious) process whereby we strive towards some good or pleasure or, conversely, seek to avoid some evil or pain. In this sense, “appetite” is more or less a synonym for “tendency”, “drive”, “striving” or even “dynamism”. For further precision, let us point out that “inclination” implies relatively weak tendency. If we’re speaking of a stronger and more powerful striving, it would be better to say “drive”.

e) Total reflection

It is an undeniable fact of experience that two of our activities are capable of a total reflection – that is, they can “turn back” (Latin, re-flectere) on themselves. These two activities are knowing and willing. When I know, I know that I know and it is also possible for me to will to will.

g) Rebirth

A belief in rebirth or reincarnation has been shown to be part of the institutionalised eschatology of tribal people in different parts of the world. Even today, traces of such views are found as far apart as among the Igbo tribe of South East Nigeria and the natives of the Trobriand (or Kiwira) Islands, of the coast of New Guinea just off the North-Western tip of Australia. It is certain that rebirth theories flourished among the tribal, non-Brahmanic religious in the Gangetic region of ancient India, in pre-Aryan times.

h) Resuscitation

The word “resuscitation” is currently used in medical circles to refer to the revival of a patient who had previously been pronounced clinically dead. Many modern hospitals have more or less sophisticated equipment to assist the more traditional “resuscitation techniques” such as artificial respiration, mouth-to-mouth breathing and the like. A person who has been “resuscitated” is one who has been, as it were, returned to this level of ordinary human existence where one is still subject to pain, discomfort, disease … and finally death.

Dalit Phil.

1. Write a detailed essay on the dalit belief systems and rituals.

Dalit belief systems and rituals:

Many of the Dalits who had been murdered while protecting the village or for defying imposed casteist norms have been eventually deified. They are represented through the symbols of formless stones, sandy mounds, tree or metal spear or statues. Such symbols are made of easily available materials mud, limestone, mortar, cement etc. By and large, these statues holding the rustic weapons are portrayed with the energetic postures and brisk expressions of wrath. Tranquil postures in deep contemplation or slumber are not part of the mainstream deities of Dalits.

The respect paid to the dead is quite profound in the Dalit world. The food consumed or the materials used by the dead ones are specially offered to the dead ones on their graveyard. Interestingly each event of remembering the dead is marked with the collective meal in memory of them. Memory and meal are the inseparables from the Dalit world. The aspect of collectively shared meal is the hallmark of the practices of animal sacrifice. The communitarian meal in memory of the dead who was killed as the martyr for having had the fellowship meal with the so-called polluted ones is also in tune with the Dalit sensibility.

The following are some of the notable features in the worship patterns of the Dalits: offering of the replica symbols (of the members of the body) made of some costly or cheap metals tonsuring of the head, moving towards the sacred spots on kneels, walking with burning candles or oil lamps in deep devotion, offer of coconut sapling, sacrificing goats whose thigh portion is offered to the deity or priests, and other portions for feeding a large number of people, offer of brooms for acquiring protection from the onslaught of epidemics, carrying bow shaped burden on the shoulders (kavadi)), carrying milk containers on the head (palkudam),  piercing of the tongue with sharp lance (alagu), pulling the sacred cart by hooks pierced into the skin of pilgrims (padukalam), the walking pilgrimage undertaken on sacred months (padayatra), and  carrying on the head the small baggage of materials required for the rituals at the shrine.

Dalit world counts the animal sacrifice to their gods as religiously significant. In the sacrificial context, the blood itself is a symbol of fertility and multiplication that the people anticipate and cherish in their life. The sacrificial blood mediates the people with their deities. It is a covenant and a performed agreement between the people and the deities. By performing a sacrifice, the people compel the deities to pledge welfare for them. The functions of sacrificial blood are multifarious as contracting covenant, atonement, expiation, reconciliation between parties involved. Both in the worlds of Dalits and the Bible, the body of the sacrificial victim divested of its blood are shared as a communitarian meal. Though burnt offerings were accepted by the Israelites as well as elite Brahminic prescriptions (yajna in which animals, cereals, ghee or sarees are sacrificed in fire), they are rejected by Dalits as the unproductive desecration and unpardonable wastage.

Shrines and pilgrimages evoke the inner world of imagination of the Dalits as sites of religious aesthetics. Mere propositions on aesthetic objects or acts especially in the religious realm do not evoke active and activated response especially from them. But performances in the body evoke a lot in terms of chain of further acts. For the body or mind to be in a position of eliciting an effect, power, or capability from any other sources (venerable object, sacred place, holy person), it must manifest itself in a particular concrete way, which then becomes the triggering point or moment. This can only be done through the appropriate aesthetic performance. It is not what the object 'says' or 'expresses' by itself is the key issue here. But what it does and what forms of action and social relations the object elicits is significant here. And hence from the point of view of aesthetic fulfillment in the religious realm, we could identify some of the internal factors which seem to determine the various levels of contentment among the Dalits.

2. What do you know about Dalit aesthetics? What are the Dalit contribution to Indian

Music and Dance?

Dalit aesthetics

Aesthetics as a science of arts is a distinct branch of philosophy. In Indian Dalit context it is more than mere the art-appreciation and art-experience. In the Indian context, it generally refers to the art-appreciation and art-experience of art forms.  Aesthetics is thus understood as an appreciation of the arts. Generally, ‘art’ is defined as the use of the imagination to express ideas or feelings. Aesthetics is the philosophy dealing with the understanding the existence of beautiful things and human response to beauty. The issues arising out of artistic activities and human reaction to them and the intellectual activities connected with them are dealt in Aesthetics.  The emphasis is on the notion of beauty.

Aesthetic richness of Dalit tradition is expressed in Dalit art forms which are indigenous dance, poetic and drama forms. Combination of many art forms such as poetry, music, dance, painting and sculpture, instrument-making, pottery are founding the Dalit way of life. Dalit culture is expressed itself through art forms.  All the forms of the fine arts are present in Dalit life.  Aesthetical study of an indigenous art form of Dalits is enriching and challenging.  Indian Aesthetics is generally confined to norms of philosophical aesthetics as presented and handed down by brahmanical tradition in both oral and written forms. Aesthetics in philosophy is the study of the feelings, concepts and judgments arising from our appreciation of the arts. 

Dalit contribution to Indian music and dance

From the Dalit perspective, language, song, music and art were not developed for leisure. It is contrary to the popular notion injected by Brahmanism. Music and art are organic expressions of the process of labour and production. Dalit philosophy is that work and song, pani and pattu, are part of life. Song and dance became a part of human existence. They are meant to lighten the burden of work and to re-energize people so that they could get back to creative and productive work once again. They are cultural instruments emerged in the productive communities and are part of organic process of expression of human productivity and creativity.  A production process is not a social process, but a creative process, as it needs to discover and rediscover the instruments of production and the instruments to sharpen human skills and sensibilities in human interaction with nature.

Dappu or parai (drum), is entirely made of leather and wood.  A strip of wood is bent to form a ring, with a leather rope that holds both ends together. Holes are made in the wooden ring asnd a highly processed piece of leather is stitched onto one side. As the leather dries, it becomes taut and produces a musical sound at the slightest touch. The playing of the instrument is an artistic process as it is slung over the shoulder with a leather rope and with a very thin stick in the left hand and a big stick in the right, beaten in a rhythmic manner. The playing of the dappu is a collective process. The dappu produces a melodious sound that spreads across the vast area, making the social atmosphere very sacred and sensitized. The village environment in the company of green crops, mild breeze and bid singing, the music of the dappu produces a social collectiveness. It is used as an instrument of public announcements, dandora, and as a tool of mass communication, especially of festivities or death of someone in the village.  It calls for social participation in the individual life events.

By its music the community becomes alert and brought to its cultural orgasm. It is an instrument producing music for the excitement, pleasure and relaxation of all communities. It is at the heart of any social event, weddings, in house warming functions, in festivities of birth and lamentations of death.  Dappu becomes a social mobilizer, an instiller of the energy lost in the routine work of production and reproduction, relieving people of their physical fatigue and mental stress. It serves an enormous social purpose. In funeral processions, it reminds the mourners of the cyclical process of life. After the mourning the dead and pondering over the futility of life, all return back to life involving in production and procreation in the face of inevitability of death. The dappu music reminds people that the feeling of vairagya, detachment form everyday life and renunciation, is not to last long. Everyone is to come back to life as production and procreation are fundamental and necessary part of life. The philosophical implication of dappu music is that it brings people back from the depths of despair and restores to everydayness of life, without minimizing loss of life, reality of death and sorrow.

3. d) Briefly explain Ambedkar’s analysis of religion.

Ambedkar’s philosophical analysis of religion is an illustration of Dalit religious philosophy. His scrutiny of religion in general and of Hinduism in particular, in his classical work Philosophy of Hinduism is illustrative of Dalit Religious philosophy. He throws new light on critique of religious thought and point to a definite approach to the strengthening of Indian society based on the human values of equality, liberty and fraternity. Future of Dalit religious philosophy has such an analysis directed towards emancipation projects of the Dalits themselves.

He developed an indigenous analysis of religion to understand the nature of Hinduism and evaluate its social function, against the usual model of the Western ‘theodicy-model.’ His is a critique of religion for liberation. Dalit religious philosophy, in Ambedkar is a philosophy of emancipatory religion. Ambedkar points out that there are three important theses that form the subject matter of a philosophical analysis of religion both in natural and social theology. They are: ‘(1) The existence of God (2) God’s Providential government of the universe and (3) God’s moral government of mankind (society).’ Ambedkar’s analytical interest is to find out whether Hinduism as a religion and social order is an ideal scheme of divine governance whose aim is to make the social order a moral order. He observes that Hinduism has a written form constitution, Manu Smriti from which scheme of divine governance is easily deducible.

  

 c) Write a short essay on the pragmatic and constructive religious symbols

among the dalits.

Religious energies possess the capacity to function as a counter-symbolic factory whereby subaltern communities like Dalits reject the hegemonic symbolic universe of the dominant caste communities and construct one of their own. The act of constructing their own symbolic world-view in the face of severe domination becomes the basis of hope, not just for their resistance but, more importantly, for the working out of their own assertive power.

In response to the tyranny of the systematic and effective marginalization by the sacred tradition of the elite in the caste system, the Dalits create their pragmatic and constructive counter-symbols, in order to uphold the values of protection of life, production for livelihood and procreation of new life. These aspects of protection (drum, goddesses protecting the boundaries), production (the Mulaippari, Pongal, plough – as in Tamil Dalit tradition) and procreation (rituals related to puberty, child-birth, post-natal ceremonies) are passionately attended to even by the most wretched atleast in a small scale in simple forms.

These primordial symbols signifying protection, production and procreation are still embedded in the substratum of Dalit consciousness irrespective of the osmosis of cultural elements shared with the dominant.  For instance, in the realm of Dalit symbolic world “the drum” symbolizes the mediating and empowering presence of the divine. In spite of the process of denigration, defamation and vilification of the Dalit drum by the non-Dalits down the centuries, the very drum seems to be the foundational symbol of sustenance, nurture and empowerment of the Dalits. And the audible nature of the music of the drum is capable of piercing through the borderline of purity-pollution. While the caste elite could control the aspects of touch and sight by reducing the Dalits as untouchable and ‘unseeable,’ the audibility of the drum-beat cannot be controlled by them. And it is this audibility of the drumbeaters, that poses the challenge to those who live by Sruti (what is heard). Being deprived even of the possibility of hearing these sacred traditions being recited, the Dalits do create their own Sruti through their drum beat and continue to cheerfully dance to its tune even during the funeral processions.

4. b) What are the main features of dalit religion?

These are the main features of dalit religion:

(i)Nature as the embodiment of God’s revelation

Dalit religion discerns the divine in natural objects and the presence of supernatural in natural forces. For dalits, beneath every object, whether a growing tree or a static stone, there is life supernatural. The worship of nature resulted itself in the preservation of the nature. Thus the dalit religion is eco-friendly.

(ii)Thin space between the Divine and the Human

God takes the closest place of the human as God(dess) also undergoes the passion and emotion of  the human beings. The symbolism involved with food, thread and stick suggests they believed in God(dess) who can be hungry and thirsty, God(dess) who is industrious and God(dess) who is vulnerable.

(iii) Gender equality as the core of Dalit Religion

The rituals and ceremonies of the dalits mirror the space that women occupied in the society. Dalits had recognized the feminine dimension of the Deity and it is evident in the fact that in most cases Deity manifested Her (Him) self in the form of feminine. They worshipped Goddesses like Mariamma, Yellamma. Kaliamma, Morasamma and Matangi, Somalamma and Moosamma. There were also Gods in the dalit pantheon but they only played a secondary role.

(iv)Protest is an intrinsic element of Dalit Religion

To a dalit, protest is lifestyle. There were several ceremonies that reflect the element of protest and some of them were incorporated into the Hindu culture. It had also been a custom among dalits to clean their streets with water mixed with turmeric whenever a Brahmin happens to pass by their hamlet.

c) What do you know about the Shramana Tradition ?

“Shramana” means striving, and shramanas in the first millennium before Christ (or “before the Common Era”, if you want to be politically correct) were people who had left  their home, went wandering in the forests, wilds and cities also to search for the truth about life and the universe.  They included many groups, sects and varieties of opinion.  The most famous were the Buddhists, the Jains, and the materialist “Lokayata” followers of Charvak.  But they also included many groups who have now disappeared but were important for centuries, for instance the Ajivikas.

There was a sense of growing inequalities and oppression, a feeling that the whole world was being shaken up.  It is no wonder that the theme of one of the most famous discourses of Buddha was fire: “monks, the whole world is ablaze.”   In fact, a new class society was coming into existence, and it was perhaps an open choice as to what kind of society it would be. Extremely different models and aspirations were being put forward by the two contending traditions – the Brahmans, and the shramanas.

e) Briefly discuss the dalit understanding of evil.

The dalit understanding of evil

•           The damage of human dignity with arbitrary attribution of permanent pollution as               untouchables due to the practice of caste hierarchy.

•           The contradiction between being wanted as menial executives and unwanted as people with equal footing.

•           The inner conflicts between the personal desire for equal placement with others and the impersonal duty of being reduced to be lesser humans in the socio-political ladders.

•           Conflicting expressions of the explicit consciousness (immediate agenda of survival) and the implicit consciousness (sustaining passion for collective human identity).

•           When the achieved status is ridiculed and camouflaged by attributed inferior status.

•           When multiple forms of day-to-day socio-psychological and politico-physiological violence are trivialized by routinization, naturalization or even legitimization by the media, bureaucracy or judiciary.

•           The vicious cycle of behaviour due to depression or self-hatred resulting in fear of alienation and punishment.

•           Ever carrying the heavy burden of initiating the painful process of reconciliation, at least for the short-term political alliances, with the anti-Dalit forces which are just above in the social pyramid of caste hierarchy.

•           When Dalit ethical sensibilities are thrown overboard as eccentric claims for any regional, national or international discourse.

f) Explain Nature as the embodiment of God’s revelation?

Dalit religion discerns the divine in natural objects and the presence of supernatural in natural forces. Western writers, whose twin mission was to subjugate other cultures and to mutilate the Nature, had called this world-view as ‘animism’. For dalits, beneath every object, whether a growing tree or a static stone, there is life supernatural. As symbol of this kinship of nature and the supernatural innate they have deified objects like stones and trees. In every hut or outside every dalit hamlet a stone or a tree had been dedicated as representation of the Deity. The worship of nature resulted itself in the preservation of the nature. Thus the dalit religion is eco-friendly.

5. a) Narayan Guru

Narayana Guru was a Dalit thinker, social reformer and a sage in the modern period of India. Born as a Ezhava which was a caste considered in between the upper and lowest strata in the caste hierarchy, he and his society suffered social injustice. He revolted against casteism and reformed the society by rejecting caste divisions in the society. He was fondly called as gurudeva. The Guru’s philosophy is exemplified in his mystical writings that are truly interchanging warps and wefts of ethics, logic, aesthetics and metaphysics woven into masterpieces of silken rich poetry. The Guru’s literary works are in Malayalam, Sanskrit, Tamil languages, and these works are of a conceptual and aesthetic quality at par with the upanishads.

b) Dalit world-view

The world-view or the life-world does not mean the stagnant cluster of ideas and concepts. It is a process of cognition and operative foundations of human subjectivity. The latent and active complexes of values and rules of knowing embedded in the collective and individual consciousness control the whole spectrum of perception, behaviour, decision and choices. Any human community in a given living context of nature and nurture could be predominantly nomadic, agrarian, or IT in life orientations. In the globalized context of the contemporary age, the life-world of human communities, including those of Dalits, seem to be a mix-up of nomadic, agrarian and IT components. The whole complex web of oral wisdom, written discourses, movie stories or television serials from the religions, cultures or literature of the native Dalit soil is already embedded in the depths of their collective consciousness along with the impact of their historical successes and failures.

c) Subaltern philosophy

While critically analyzing the texts on God and soul, Iyothee Thass came up with a new discourse on God. The term God refers to those men and women, who through their own morally right conduct towards their fellow human beings and society have become immortalized in history and inspiration for subsequent generations. God is an ideal term and invitation to all similarly raise themselves morally to the status of the Divine. Veneration of these gods is neither out of fear nor for favor but a celebratory remembrance to strengthen one’s own resolve to become like them. A righteous life taught by Buddha is religion for him.  The three fundamental ethical teachings of Buddha are: Don’t sin (Kanma Bhaagai); Do good (Artha Bhaagai); Purify you heart (Gnana Bhaagai). These fundamental teachings are further explicated in the  four (Bhedas): Aram, Porul, Inbam, Veedu.

d) Shamanism

Religions of Indigenous origin in India like Buddhism and Jainism is called Shamanism. Buddhism began in the 5th and 4th centuries BC, and it carried India through more than 1000 years of prosperity, and then gradually declined. Then in the 13th century, an Islamic government came to be in India, and Buddhism disappeared from most of the Indian Subcontinent, with pockets of Buddhist people living in the Himalayan mountainous and other regions.  The earliest known historical people to have rejected the caste system were Buddha and Mahavira. Their teachings eventually became to be known as Buddhism and Jainism which their followers converted into religions. Though they are today known as different religions, they were in fact against religion and denounced the existence of God and the belief in caste system.

f) Dalitization

An emancipatory project proposed by Kancha Ilaiah towards equal society where the high ideals of Dalit civil society ensure all peace and prosperity. Kancha Ilaiah (1952- ) is an Indian activist and passionate writer. He often writes related to contemporary Indian society, religious fundamentalism, Dalitbahujan ideology and condition. He is a very famous Indian political philosopher with much controversies attached to him. He is counted as a hardcore critic against the Hindutva movement. He advocates the "Dalitization" of Indian culture.  In his writings, especially in Why I am not a Hindu he emphatically proposes Dalitization of Indian culture.