peace and conflict

Section –I

1. Define peace. Explain different means of creating and sustaining peace.

            Peace is essential for sustaining a normal tenor of life, a life free from tension and conflict. The disturbance of peace at any level identified above is likely to have a larger impact no matter where it is broken. If a person loses peace of mind, others in his immediate and mediate environments are sure to be affected in varying degrees. If a society is disturbed and is in turmoil, its members are adversely affected in various ways. And when organized violence erupts at the level of the world, the lives of the people all around the world are adversely affected in numerous ways. These three levels are differentiated by the scope and the extent of the impact that the disturbance of peace creates. However, whenever peace is broken, it is broken because of the failure of the mechanism of reconciliation and compromise that is set in operation whenever the possibility of conflict becomes visible. Even after the peace has been broken, attempts are made to quickly restore peace and let the normal life of everyday run its smooth course.

            Creating a loving, intimate, lasting relationship is the most wonderful thing than a man and a woman can experience in his or her lifetime. Tantamount to what Paul wrote above, Love is the most important thing in the world. The most important thing in life...without love we are nothing. Loving another is the reason we were created. When we stop loving, our life becomes meaningless. The purpose of life is to develop in our wisdom, love, inner peace, selflessness and creative abilities. However, creating and sustaining a loving relationship is Hard, but essential if we want to live a worthwhile life.

            Given the central importance of peace for human well-being, certain institutionalized mechanisms for keeping peace and for foreclosing the possibility of its breakdown have been in place in all societies. These mechanisms have different forms and characteristics depending on the level at which they work. For example, in the case of the individual the most notable institution has been religion. Traditionally, religion was relied upon to help individuals to achieve and maintain inner harmony. Every religion underlines the necessity of self-transcendence which can be facilitated if the individual believes that he must identity himself with an entity, God, some higher principle, some larger human groups, etc- and acts in different life situations guided by this belief. Since anything larger than the individual but falling short of the divine entity is discriminatory and divisive, loaded with the possibility of conflict, every religion stresses some divine entity as the focus of man’s identity, truth, meaning and value  However, with the ascendance of modernity the role of religion in man’s life has considerably declined with the result that psychoanalysis is now increasingly seen to be an effective instrument of reducing, even eliminating, aggression as the source of conflict. Thus the psychologist’s couch has replaced, to a very large extent, the place of worship.

            The primary role of religion is to forge a compliance system that is reflective of and represents the normative aspect of a social order. Normative compliance system means simply that there is an internalized desire to comply; behaviour that is institutionally necessary is internalized as a need disposition in the personal system. However, the normative system proves ineffective in many situations.

            Even political institutional means of ensuring compliance with the proper course of conduct; involve threat of coercion by a centralised political authority. In contradistinction to normative and coercive means, there is social control, which is said to be non-coercive. This method is trade or contract. It signifies the stability within a system composed of a number of autonomous forces. Whenever the equilibrium is disturbed either by an outside force or by a change in one or other elements comprising the system, the system shows a tendency to reestablish either the original or a new equilibrium.

           

Some great thinkers of creating and sustaining peace;

            Martin Luther King, Jr., observed that, “our scientific power has outrun our spiritual power. We have guided missiles and misguided men.” Gandhi noted, “We are constantly being astonished at the amazing discoveries in the field of violence. But I maintain that far more undreamt of and seemingly impossible discoveries will be made in the field of nonviolence.”  We live in an age of both pluralism and terror, and it is critical for us to articulate what might constitute a culture of peace.  Nonviolence is Buddhism’s master precept. Peacekeeping, peacemaking, and peace building are three responses to conflict. Peacekeeping stops people from attacking each other. This minimizes the damage but does not ensure stability. We need to put out the fires, but it would be better to prevent them in the first place by addressing the underlying causes.

            When the Buddha came to understand how suffering arises, he was able to transform the processes that cause and sustain it. He described this insight using the language of four noble truths:

1. Suffering exists.

2. Suffering has causes.

3. We can stop producing the causes of suffering.

4. A path of mindful living can show us the way

            The third noble truth is the cessation of the causes of suffering. This does not presuppose that we can reach a state that is conflict-free, but encourages us to grapple with the details internal and external every time. Conflict can be an opportunity to go directly to the heart of the matter and learn more about ourselves. The fourth noble truth peace as a way of life shows us how to live in ways that reduce suffering and conflict. The Buddha called this the eightfold path:

1. Right understanding: understanding the four noble truths.

2. Right Thought: freedom from that which cannot bring satisfaction.

3. Right Speech: speaking truthfully and skillfully.

4. Right Action: not killing, steal ing, or indulging in irresponsible sexual behavior.

5. Right Livelihood: not engaging in a profession that brings harm to others.

6. Right effort: encouraging wholesome states of mind.

7. Right Mindfulness: awareness of the physical and mental dimensions of our experience.

8. Right Concentration: staying focused.

            This eightfold path encourages peace building as a way of life. It points to ways that awareness can be deepened and the parts of our lives brought into harmony. We begin by living mindfully. Then we can use these tools to dismantle oppressive systems and create a culture of peace.

            Peacekeeping, peacemaking, and peace building are three responses to conflict. Peacekeeping stops people from attacking each other. This minimizes the damage but does not ensure stability.

4. Explain what makes a culture of peace possible and on what pillars it is developed.

            The definition of "peace" is almost limitless.  If we are to appeal to Canadians, we must begin where it is meaningful to each person on an individual level.  If we can achieve a significant improvement in "peace in the home" within Canada, it would lead to a substantial reduction in violence and conflict within the community.  Such an achievement would send a powerful message to people and leaders throughout the world.

            To address peace within the home, it is necessary to identify those issues which cause grief and conflict within families.  Today, many of these issues are of a materialist or emotional nature.  Children are unhappy because they do not have the same material goods as their friends.  Parents are unhappy because they cannot provide their families with the ideal lifestyle.  It seems that if families, regardless of wealth, have a strong family commitment and respect for one another, the level of violence and conflict within the family is significantly reduced.

            The culture of peace is desirable but how it can be achieved must be squarely faced. Every society has certain norms of behaviour that emphasize peaceful, proper conduct and develops certain mechanisms to control, regulate and, if possible, eliminate or neutralize the tendency towards aggression and violence. Broadly speaking, two classes of such mechanisms- internal and external- can be identified for the purposes at hand. Both internal and external mechanisms of controlling individual motivation and behaviour aim at promoting and ensuring compliance with certain standards of personal and social behaviour so that interpersonal, inter-group and international relations do not turn out to be violent and that if and when contestation promises to transform itself into violent conflict, whether organized or not, best counsel would block this transformation from taking place.

            1.  External Measures of Compliance

            These two kinds of control mechanisms are found in every society; however, they differ from each other in the sense that while some authority outside the individual himself imposes external mechanisms, internal control mechanisms depend for their efficiency essentially on internalized norms of behaviour. Ridicule, reprimand, punishment – these are some of the examples of external mechanisms; they are expected to instill in the individual a sense of shame and regret for the infraction of norms of behaviour that society has accepted and expects its members to adhere.

            We all are familiar with the use of slaps and rods in the case of those children who are supposed to be guilty of quarreling and for their recourse to violent acts. The methods of controlling and regulating behaviour may not be socially sanctioned, but they are usually socially practiced. In addition, there are certain institutionalized mechanisms that every society, whether primitive or modern, has access to for enforcing compliance. There are informal methods of settling violent conflicts. These methods range from mediation to informal methods of settling conflicts such as caste panchayat and village panchayat. Their efficacy depends on the fear of social boycott that may leave a person on the limbo of isolation and stoppage of social relations if milder punitive measures fail to be effective. This method is known as boycott. A person unfortunate enough to invite collective punitive action of this kind virtually becomes a non-person. Besides informal methods of social control, there are institutionalized methods that derive their sanction from centralized political authority.

            The phenomenon of rational commensuration should alert us to the fact that external mechanisms of ensuring compliance with peaceful means of resolving differences that, when left unattended, are certain to lead to violence, are by no means sufficient. They need to be supplemented and strengthened by the cultivation of attitudes that refuse to use violent methods for resolving conflicts.

            2.  Internal Measures of Compliance

            The talk of the training of disposition and attitude for sustaining peaceableness underlines the supreme importance of internal mechanisms of control for not only cultivating peaceableness but also for making external mechanisms of control more effective, but less frequent, if not quite redundant. A compliance system based on internal mechanisms of control receives its relevance from the internalization of certain values that inculcate and support peaceful behavior by suppressing aggression. These values underline the power of peace and are instrumental in altering patterns in people’s mind based on the violent ways of behaving. They aim at replacing violent ways of dealing with conflict situations. They induce and prompt people to replace aggressiveness with peace consciousness that values cooperation, kindness, honesty, compassion, tolerance, charity and justice. Once internalized, these values prove durable and are capable of inoculating the people against the attractiveness of violence. Internalization of values that engender peaceableness creates an internalized desire to comply with the norms of peaceful behaviour. It is a behaviour that is institutionally necessary and is internalized as a need disposition in the personal system.

            3.  Culture of Peace Defined

            It is now possible to define the meaning of culture of peace. When external measures of compliance are gradually replaced by internal measures, a society deserves to be called as peaceful. This movement from external measures of control to internal measures may ultimately succeed in banishing violence; however, it does not guarantee that society will never experience conflicts. However, as long as there is a diversity of looking at the world and doing things, as long as a plurality of social groups exists, and as long as a multiplicity of interests goads people to act, there will be differences. But when people learn to resolve these differences nonviolently and act accordingly, it can be said that culture of peace prevails.

            Culture of peace signifies not only the training of mind to resist the seduction of violence but also the manifestation of such a trained mind in sustaining peaceful social relations. Culture of peace signifies a state of mind that abjures violence as well as measures and structures, which promise to solidify and build trust and interaction among people for avoiding a relapse into conflict.

            Pillars of the Culture of Peace

            Culture of peace is cultivated and nurtured in the minds of men. However, it is kept alive in civil society, which institutionalizes principles and procedures that play an active role in preventing a social situation from becoming violent. It is thus clear that culture of peace is not synonymous with a peaceable mind nor it is identical with civil society alone. It is the combination of both that engenders and sustains culture of peace.           Man as an economic man requires him to compete with others for satisfying his material needs. He has necessarily to rely on his capacity to outrun others in the race of life. It is this need that makes power as violence or force so central in man’s life today. Without doing away with this conception of man and mitigating the consequences of the activities of man qua economic man, power in terms of active nonviolence cannot be redefined.

5. Define conflict. Explain the specific sources of conflict.

            Conflicts are Frictions or oppositions resulting from actual or perceived differences or incompatibilities. Conflict means different things to different people. For some, a definition of conflict involves fighting, war, trade embargos and so on. For others, it may be a difference in opinion, perspective or personality. We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a threat to their needs, interests or concerns. Conflict tends to be accompanied by significant levels of misunderstanding that exaggerate the perceived disagreement considerably. If we can understand the true areas of disagreement, this will help us solve the right problems and manage the true needs of the parties. On many occasions, people who are seen as part of the social system (e.g., work team, family, and company) are influenced to participate in the dispute, whether they would personally define the situation in that way or not. In the above example, people very readily "take sides" based upon current perceptions of the issues, past issues and relationships, roles within the organization, and other factors.

            Our reactions to the threat and dilemma posed by conflict should be anticipated to include varying understandings of the situation. This also means that we can anticipate that in many conflicts there will be significant misunderstanding of each other's perceptions, needs and feelings. These challenges contribute to our emerging sense, during conflict, that the situation is overwhelming and unsolvable. As such, they become critical sources of potential understanding, insight and possibility.

            Conflicts are universal. They are present in every family, community, society, state or organization. They are inherent part of our social existence. There is no agreement among scholars on the precise definition of the term conflict. There is an ‘academic conflict’ among scholars on the question of defining the term ‘conflict’.

Specific sources of conflict;

           

            Most conflicts have specific sources. There can be as many sources as there are conflicts. However, we discuss below some of the major specific sources, which contribute towards the origin of the specific conflicts like religious, ethnic, and racial or caste conflicts.

1.  Religion: Religion has often acted as one of the major sources of conflict. Since religion provides a worldview of its own, it comes in clash with other religions. Sometimes, we find inter-religious and intra-religious conflicts. Regarding the former category of conflicts we can give the example of Islam, which began a career of conquest in the seventh century with the thesis that it was the only true faith and was necessarily in conflict with all other religions. The doctrine of Jihad (holy war), as understood by Arab Muslims then, brought the Muslim state in conflict with the non-Muslim state of unbelievers. Belief in Jihad induced continuous attacks by the Arabs upon the decadent Roman Empire and rising Christendom during the seventh and eighth centuries and resulted in extensive Muslim conquests in the Middle East, North Africa and Spain. Christendom, however, reacted militantly in the Crusades of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries turning on Islam with the doctrine of papal sovereignty of the world.

2. Ethnicity: Ethnicity can be one of the sources of conflicts. Since the demise of authoritarian rule in the erstwhile Soviet bloc states of Eastern Europe, ethnic conflicts have sprung up. Also, whenever great empires disintegrate, ethnic rivalries break out. The authoritarian regimes generally suppress ethnic histories of various ethnic groups. Ethnic conflicts can also erupt in other situations. Scholars of ethnic studies have identified many reasons of ethnic conflicts. Let us discuss them.

            Most ethnic conflicts stem from the failure of political, economic and social institutions to pay sufficient attention to the grievances and perceived needs and fears of significant groups in the state. Second, ethnic conflicts focus on the false histories (not empirically tested or scholarly established by dispassionate method) that many ethnic groups have of themselves and others. These histories are usually passed from generation to generation by word of mouth. These stories become part of a group’s lore. Distorted and exaggerated with time, these histories present one’s own group as heroic, while other groups are demonized. Grievances are enshrined, and other groups are portrayed as inherently vicious and aggressive.

           

3.  Racism: White racial domination in South Africa of blacks (during the early 20th century, when Gandhi’s struggle in South Africa for the rights of people of Indian origin there), and the establishment of apartheid laws since 1950 created racial conflict in South Africa represent the good example to illustrate how racism can cause conflicts. Earlier in the 19th century the United States had to suffer a civil war for a period of four years over the question of abolishing slavery. In 1858, before the outbreak of civil war, Lincoln had stated that ‘A house divided against itself cannot stand. A government cannot endure permanently half-slave and half-free’. Racial discrimination can be an immediate factor of ensuing conflict.

           

4. Caste: Social hierarchy or stratification of society also is one of the major sources of conflict. Caste system in India assigns different social, professional and legal status to the people belonging to different castes. Lower castes and untouchables are the worst victims of caste-conflicts. Official data reveals that atrocities and crimes against ex-untouchables abound. In other words, every hour more than three cases of atrocities against them are registered, and every day three cases of rape and at least one murder are reported. Scholars of peace and conflict studies describe caste-conflicts as structural violence.

5. Ideology: Discussion of ideology as a factor for triggering conflict has figured throughout in this Unit. We all are familiar with the fact that the ideologies of Marxism, Fascism, Nazism, totalitarianism and religious fundamentalism have caused many conflicts. Cold War or ideological war between the Super Powers was the best example to illustrate this point.

            We should keep in mind that negotiation requires profound courage on the part of all parties: It takes courage to honestly and clearly articulate your needs, and it takes courage to sit down and listen to your adversaries. It takes courage to look at your own role in the dispute, and it takes courage to approach others with a sense of empathy, openness and respect for their perspective. Collaborative approaches to conflict management require us to engage in the moment of dialogue in profound and meaningful ways, so it is understandable if we tend to avoid such situations until the balance of wisdom tips in favor of negotiation.

Section-II

6. (A). How does participatory democracy assist peace building?

            The preceding analysis does not make it evident that democracy ensures peace nor does it avert threats to its own continuance. The principal reason is the divestment of the people of their sovereignty and restricting their participation to simple acclamation of the selection of rulers through periodical elections. In order to find a satisfactory answer to this question, two further questions need to be answered.

            To facilitate participatory democracy is to carry out decentralization of the polity. Decentralization, in turn, is to restore to the people their sovereignty usurped by the state. Broadly speaking, two different perspectives on decentralization are of interest here. In this perspective, full participation in public life is a necessary condition for man to become truly human. Such participation can be ensured only in a small, intimate community.

            The vicissitudes of history have, however, put paid to small communities. Political communities have become so large that direct participation by the people in making public choices has become impossible. It is in this context that the second alternative comes into operation. It is argued that in this situation only politico-administrative decentralization is possible.

            The greatest limitation panchayat bodies suffer from is their inability to plan something entirely different from or opposed to the planned development strategy carved out by the central government. The greatest hindrance to complete decentralization is posed by the belief that the size of the polity makes it difficult for installing participatory democracy. M.K. Gandhi has already offered a model of this kind of decentralized polity.

            Unless humans are essentially self-governing beings, there can be no case for self-governing societies. Self-rule, then, lays the foundation for political self-rule. This requires an alternative political arrangement in keeping with the true democratic ideal; that is, a radically decentralized and layered arrangement of building blocks, in which constituent units yield increasingly specific powers as territory and scope, is enlarged. Pursuing a simple life, self-reliant and self-governing local communities are to constitute the base of national political life

6. (B). What are the practical hindrances to participatory democracy?

            Participatory democracy is direct democracy, in the sense that all citizens are actively involved in all important decisions. Participating in a democracy by voting is one part of a larger freedom that allows the citizens of a community, and our nation, to make change.          Participatory democracy involves a thorough democratization of society extending beyond what is now considered politics to the practice and ethos of all major social institutions, particularly businesses, schools, churches and families.

            Obstacles to participatory democracy;

            To see how this ideal of an egalitarian, participatory democracy can be realized in practice, it is useful to start by considering a number of difficulties we need to overcome to make it a reality. Three of these can be thought of as intrinsic problems of participatory democracy. The other two obstacles are more concerned with the transition to an egalitarian society.

            The Challenge of Participatory Democracy conditions of existing unequal societies. By contrast, the other two problems are more concerned with the transition to an egalitarian society. In unequal societies, subordinate groups are typically under-represented in or excluded from elected decision-making bodies. Restriction of participation is justified in the name of the stability and the ability to govern democratic political order. At the level of the political system, it means the maintenance of productive forces for turning out more and more goods and services. This is necessary to cope with the rising expectations and, consequently, the demands for material benefits. This mismatch is symptomatic of erosion of morality with the consequence that the fabric of social cooperation becomes fragile and finally gets shattered. The pursuit of private and essentially individualistic goals must be girded at key points by a strict social morality which the system erodes rather than sustains.

            This conflict turns not infrequently into violence. This involves increase in the capacity of the system to perform well not only on the economic front but also on the political front for material benefits and political participation.

            The social maelstrom, however, continues and deepens conflict surface; peace is disturbed and democratic politics gets distorted. Thus people want peace and well-being but the formal democracy grants them only uncertainty and conflict.

7. (A). Elaborate Gandhian views on peace education.

            Education certainly is a means to all-round progress of man. In other words, the pathway to human-development goes through the lanes of education. Moreover, true education is the sole basis of achieving one's purpose in life. It is education, which can ascertain ultimate peace for a human being.

            To educate people in these three aspects necessary for "action" Gandhiji gave very relevant programmes which can even now be followed by everyone. For getting the right understanding, Gandhiji evolved eleven vratas (vows) for every individual and for appreciation, he gave the concept of constructive work for the people to work out and to consummate the above two aspects he demonstrated that Satyagraha is interrelated and inter-dependent. Without practicing one, the other is not possible. All put together, it leads to a holistic view of life making the man into a Mahatma.

            Gandhi proclaimed that the foundations for the development of morality in a man should begin as early as in his childhood through moral and ethical education and considered it as important and necessary for the all round-development of personality in general and to progress towards

            Peace Education

            Gandhi’s approach to value education familiarizes us, in holistic perspective, the necessity of basic education that emphasizes social consciousness and the Dignity of every individual. Gandhi considered the moral education as essential component of education, leading to character development

            Education, as he says, should lead to rediscovery of peace. This is crucial in dealing with others and in playing a constructive role for the betterment of society, nation and ultimately towards the world. Gandhi aimed at eliminating the negative traits like communal disharmony and caste discrimination through constructive work. This, he felt, could be achieved only through the inculcation of right values.

            Gandhi believed that the introduction of religious studies in education would fortify ethics in students and develop the values of forbearance, tolerance, and humanity. The organizations and institutions involved in making efforts towards fostering peace and harmony often acknowledge Gandhi as the source of their inspiration and action.

7. (B). Make a critical study of satygraha as a means of dispute resolution.

            Satyagraha was a non-violent method popularised by Gandhi when he was in South Africa. The concept of Satyagraha, however, was nothing new in the Indian household where for ages any member of the family, child or mother, wife or husband, brother or sister, or even a friend or neighbour would resort to a refusal- may be not talking, not eating food, not using any specific thing, not participating in family or community programme etc. even under the threat or use of punishment. A self-imposed and demonstrable suffering was calculated to melt the heart of anyone near or dear.

            Gandhian Way Introduction to Peace and Conflict Resolution

            It created a deep impression upon the administration. Gen Smuts came to believe that Gandhi was a godly person. One of his associates said reflecting Smut’s own feelings: “I do not like your people, and do not care to assist them at all. But what am I to do? You help us in our day of need. But you will not injure even the enemy.

            Condition for Satyagraha: Nonviolence

            Satyagraha, for Gandhi, was not a negative campaigning. He believed it to be a positive action-oriented effort to build a common interest community inclusive of those whom you chose to confront. It was aimed at dissolving antagonism without removing the antagonist. It was a bid to elicit cooperation through non-cooperation.

            To practice Satyagraha, one had to make a lot of preparation, and not everybody could do so at the drop of a hat. The most important condition was to observe non violence in thought, feeling, word or action. To achieve such a level of preparation, the Satyagrahi had to grasp truth firmly, which could happen only if he had thorough training in ethics. Ethics was not something ethereal to be snatched from the air.

            Nonviolence and Truth are aligned inseparably. “Ahimsa is the means and Truth the end”, used to say Gandhi. Those who came to appreciate Gandhi’s contribution to the evolving of a peaceful and harmonious world community would make a long list of celebrated names. That effort would deflect our purpose. The essence of the matter is that the West, indeed the world, has come to acknowledge the Gandhian Way as the alternative to the mad race to death and destruction sought through weapon culture, greed and materialistic attitude.

Basic science

Introduction

The human brain is a very powerful organ. It controls all parts of the body and allows us to think, feel, move our arms and legs and it helps us stay healthy.

The brain looks like a pink sponge and consists of a mass of nerve cells. It is protected by the skull. An adult's brain weighs about 1.5 kilograms. Large animals such as whales and elephants have larger brains in absolute terms, but when measured using the encephalization quotient which compensates for body size, the human brain is almost twice as large as the brain of the bottlenose dolphin, and three times as large as the brain of a chimpanzee. Much of the expansion comes from the part of the brain called the cerebral cortex, especially the frontal lobes, which are associated with executive functions such as self-control, planning, reasoning, and abstract thought. The portion of the cerebral cortex devoted to vision is also greatly enlarged in humans.

 The adult human brain weighs on average about 3 lb (1.5 kg) with a size of around 1130 cubic centimeters (cm3) in women and 1260 cm3 in men, although there is substantial individual variation. Men's brains are on average 100g heavier than a woman's, even when corrected for body size differences The brain is very soft, having a consistency similar to soft gelatin or firm tofu. Despite being referred to as "grey matter", the live cortex is pinkish-beige in color and slightly off-white in the interior.

My main focus of presenting this paper is based on the human brain. Human brain is a very complicated organ. My effort in presenting this paper is try to understand the functions and features of the brain. Thus, in way I somehow learnt so many things about the brain. Brain which is one of the main organs in our body is very complicated to understand. It does many complicated work which we are not aware of. In my presentation I tried to understand some of these complicated things.

                                                                                                         

                                                          

Brain Structures and their Functions

The nervous system is our body's decision and communication center. The central nervous system (CNS) is made of the brain and the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made of nerves. Together they control every part of your daily life, from breathing and blinking to helping you memorize facts for a test. Nerves reach from our brain to our face, ears, eyes, nose, and spinal cord... and from the spinal cord to the rest of our body. Sensory nerves gather information from the environment; send that information to the spinal cord, which then speed the message to the brain. The brain then makes sense of that message and fires off a response. Motor neurons deliver the instructions from the brain to the rest of your body. The spinal cord, made of a bundle of nerves running up and down the spine, is similar to a superhighway, speeding messages to and from the brain at every second.

The brain is made of three main parts: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The forebrain consists of the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus (part of the limbic system). The midbrain consists of the tectum and tegmentum. The hindbrain is made of the cerebellum, Pons and medulla. Often the midbrain, Pons, and medulla are referred to together as the brainstem.

The Cerebrum: The cerebrum or cortex is the largest part of the human brain, associated with higher brain function such as thought and action. The cerebral cortex is divided into four sections, called "lobes": the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe. Here is a visual representation of the cortex:

What does each of these lobes do?

Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving

Parietal Lobe- associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli

Occipital Lobe- associated with visual processing

Temporal Lobe- associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and speech

Note that the cerebral cortex is highly wrinkled. Essentially this makes the brain more efficient, because it can increase the surface area of the brain and the amount of neurons within it. We will discuss the relevance of the degree of cortical folding later. A deep furrow divides the cerebrum into two halves, known as the left and right hemispheres. The two hemispheres look mostly symmetrical yet it has been shown that each side functions slightly different than the other. Sometimes the right hemisphere is associated with creativity and the left hemisphere is associated with logic abilities. The corpus callosum is a bundle of axons which connects these two hemispheres.

Nerve cells make up the gray surface of the cerebrum which is a little thicker than our thumb.  White nerve fibers underneath carry signals between the nerve cells and the other parts of the brain and body.

The neocortex occupies the bulk of the cerebrum. This is a six-layered structure of the cerebral cortex which is only found in mammals. It is thought that the neocortex is a recently evolved structure, and is associated with "higher" information processing by more fully evolved animals (such as humans, dolphins, etc).

The Cerebellum: The cerebellum, or "little brain", is similar to the cerebrum in that it has two hemispheres and has a highly folded surface or cortex. This structure is associated with regulation and coordination of movement, posture, and balance.

The cerebellum is assumed to be much older than the cerebrum, evolutionarily. In other words, animals which scientists assume to have evolved prior to humans, for example reptiles, do have developed cerebellums. However, reptiles do not have neocortex. 

 Limbic System: The limbic system, often referred to as the "emotional brain", is found buried within the cerebrum. Like the cerebellum, evolutionarily the structure is rather old.

This system contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus.

Brain Stem: Underneath the limbic system is the brain stem. This structure is responsible for basic vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure. Scientists say that this is the "simplest" part of human brains because animals' entire brains, such as reptiles resemble our brain stem.

The living brain is very soft, having a consistency similar to soft gelatin or soft tofu. Despite being referred to as grey matter, the live cortex is pinkish-beige in color and slightly off-white in the interior.

General features of brain

The human brain has many properties that are common to all vertebrate brains, including a basic division into three parts called the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain, each with fluid-filled ventricles at their core, and a set of generic vertebrate brain structures including the medulla oblongata, Pons, cerebellum, optic tectum, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, olfactory bulb, and many others.

As a mammalian brain, the human brain has special features that are common to all mammalian brains, most notably a six-layered cerebral cortex and a set of structures associated with it, including the hippocampus and amygdala. All vertebrates have a forebrain whose upper surface is covered with a layer of neural tissue called the pallium, but in all except mammals the pallium has a relatively simple three-layered cell structure. In mammals it has a much more complex six-layered cell structure, and is given a different name, the cerebral cortex. The hippocampus and amygdala also originate from the pallium, but are much more complex in mammals than in other vertebrates.

As a primates (monkey) brain, the human brain has a much larger cerebral cortex, in proportion to body size, than most mammals, and a very highly developed visual system. The shape of the brain within the skull is also altered somewhat as a consequence of the upright position in which primates hold their heads. As a hominid brain, the human brain is substantially enlarged even in comparison to the brain of a generic monkey. The sequence of evolution from Australopithecus (four million years ago) to Homo sapiens (modern man) was marked by a steady increase in brain size, particularly in the frontal lobes, which are associated with a variety of high-level cognitive functions.  

Humans and other primates have some differences in gene sequence, and genes are differentially expressed in many brain regions. The functional differences between the human brain and the brains of other animals also arise from many gene–environment interactions.

Cerebral cortex: The cerebral hemispheres form the largest part of the human brain and are situated above most other brain structures. They are covered with a cortical layer with a convoluted topography. Underneath the cerebrum lies the brainstem, resembling a stalk on which the cerebrum is attached. At the rear of the brain, beneath the cerebrum and behind the brainstem, is the cerebellum, a structure with a horizontally furrowed surface that makes it look different from any other brain area. The same structures are present in other mammals, although the cerebellum is not so large relative to the rest of the brain. As a rule, the smaller the cerebrum, the less convoluted the cortex. The cortex of a rat or mouse is almost completely smooth. The cortex of a dolphin or whale, on the other hand, is more convoluted than the cortex of a human.

The cerebral cortex is essentially a sheet of neural tissue, folded in a way that allows a large surface area to fit within the confines of the skull. Each cerebral hemisphere, in fact, has a total surface area of about 1.3 square feet (0.12 m2). Anatomists call each cortical fold asulcus, and the smooth area between folds a gyrus.

The four lobes of the cerebral cortex

The cerebral cortex is nearly symmetrical, with left and right hemispheres that are approximate mirror images of each other. Anatomists conventionally divide each hemisphere into four "lobes", the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe. This division into lobes does not actually arise from the structure of the cortex itself, though: the lobes are named after the bones of the skull that overlie them, the frontal bone, parietal bone, temporal bone, and occipital bone. The borders between lobes are placed beneath the sutures that link the skull bones together. There is one exception: the border between the frontal and parietal lobes is shifted backward from the corresponding suture, to the central sulcus, a deep fold that marks the line where the primary somatosensory cortex and primary motor cortex come together.

Because of the arbitrary way most of the borders between lobes are demarcated, they have little functional significance. With the exception of the occipital lobe, a small area that is entirely dedicated to vision, each of the lobes contains a variety of brain areas that have minimal functional relationship. The parietal lobe, for example, contains areas involved in somatosensation, hearing, language, attention, and spatial cognition. In spite of this heterogeneity, the division into lobes is convenient for reference.

Topography

Many of the brain areas have their own complex internal structures. In a number of cases, brain areas are organized into "topographic maps", where adjoining bits of the cortex correspond to adjoining parts of the body, or of some more abstract entity. A simple example of this type of correspondence is the primary motor cortex, a strip of tissue running along the anterior edge of the central sulcus. Motor areas innervating each part of the body arise from a distinct zone, with neighboring body parts represented by neighboring zones. Electrical stimulation of the cortex at any point causes a muscle-contraction in the represented body part. This "somatotopic" representation is not evenly distributed, however. The head, for example, is represented by a region about three times as large as the zone for the entire back and trunk. The size of any zone correlates to the precision of motor control and sensory discrimination possible. The areas for the lips, fingers, and tongue are particularly large, considering the proportional size of their represented body parts.

In visual areas, the maps are retinotopic—that is, they reflect the topography of the retina, the layer of light-activated neurons lining the back of the eye. The visual circuitry in the human cerebral cortex contains several dozen distinct retinotopic maps, each devoted to analyzing the visual input stream in a particular way. The primary visual cortex, which is the main recipient of direct input from the visual part of the thalamus, contains many neurons that are most easily activated by edges with a particular orientation moving across a particular point in the visual field. Visual areas farther downstream extract features such as color, motion, and shape.

In auditory areas, the primary map is tonotopic. Sounds are parsed according to frequency (i.e., high pitch vs. low pitch) by subcortical auditory areas, and this parsing is reflected by the primary auditory zone of the cortex. As with the visual system, there are a number of tonotopic cortical maps, each devoted to analyzing sound in a particular way.

Within a topographic map there can sometimes be finer levels of spatial structure. In the primary visual cortex, for example, where the main organization is retinotopic and the main responses are to moving edges, cells that respond to different edge-orientations are spatially segregated from one another.

Lateralization

Each hemisphere of the brain interacts primarily with one half of the body, but for reasons that are unclear, the connections are crossed: the left side of the brain interacts with the right side of the body, and vice versa. Motor connections from the brain to the spinal cord, and sensory connections from the spinal cord to the brain, both cross the midline at the level of the brainstem. Visual input follows a more complex rule: the optic nerves from the two eyes come together at a point called the optic chiasm, and half of the fibers from each nerve split off to join the other. The result is that connections from the left half of the retina, in both eyes, go to the left side of the brain, whereas connections from the right half of the retina go to the right side of the brain. Because each half of the retina receives light coming from the opposite half of the visual field, the functional consequence is that visual input from the left side of the world goes to the right side of the brain, and vice versa. Thus, the right side of the brain receives somatosensory input from the left side of the body, and visual input from the left side of the visual field—an arrangement that presumably is helpful for visuomotor coordination.

My personal experience

Through this course I learnt so many things for my life. When I was studying basic science I realized that there was something which I had studied already in my high school days but I had forgotten it. This way the study of basic science refreshed my mind. I came to know so many things about physics, chemistry and biology which I use in my daily life. There are some important things around me which I just ignore but they are very important for my life. I felt that there are so many miracles taking place in my life and around my life which I just bypass. In our body there are so many organs which work day and night to keep us healthy. We do not think much about all these things but when some organs stop functioning then we realize that there is something wrong with us.

Similarly when we talk about nature we see that they also work quietly in order to maintain the stability in the environment. Thus, the study of basic science was really very amazing and wonderful for me. Subject was very interesting which kept me focused on some amazing things. Some of the things which were taught in the class were really new for me therefore these things were a kind of new findings for my life. As a religious some of the things which I should know, basic science provided some of those things. In a way basic science gave a taste of scientific world. In other words I can say that it has developed a kind of curiosity in me to know about the scientific world.

When we talk about the human brain this is another very complicated organ. By studying about the human brain I could learn so many things. In human brain many activities take place all the times but we are not aware of that. These organs quietly complete their work without our knowledge. All these function takes place in our body system but still we are not aware about all these things.

Thus, I can say that this course was very important for me. This course gave me an opportunity to learn many things about the science world. I am sure it will help me a lot in my life. The study of science has brought a kind of awareness in my life. And the feelings of awareness certainly bring changes in my life.   

Ramnami samaj

                                                                                                                                  

 Introduction

My presentation of this paper is based on Ramdas Lamb’s book, “Rapt in the Name.” Unlike the tradition to devotion to Krishna Ram tradition is also an important component of Hinduism. As we know that Ram is the most-worshipped form of the divine being in India today, and has been particularly important to those of the lower castes throughout of India. There are groups like Satnam samaj, Kabirpanth, Ramnami Samaj etc., whose devotion is rooted and grounded in the name of Ram. My primary focus in presentating this paper is the rise of lower caste religious movements devoted to Ram, specifically the Ramnami Samaj, an Untouchable religious movement in Central India. Ramnami Samaj movement is the movment of untouchable, specially a lower cast called chamr. When we speak about the author of the book Ramdas Lamb, he has experienced about this movement as a Hindu monk and later as their friend and researcher. What we find the surprising innovative aspects of the sect is its adaptation of the story of Lord Ram that is uniquely woven into its devotional repetition of his name. They tattoo their bodies with the name ‘Ram’, write it on their clothing and adorn their walls with it. Their primary focus has been on chanting verses from the Ramchartimas. The Ramnamis have no elaborate rituals, no temples and use only small bells during their prayers.

Ramdas lamb first visited India in 1968. He was much inspired by Vaishave monk and joined Ramnanadi order in January 1970. Being a sadhu, he spent alone his time in a valley of Himalaya. He was told that Harijans were dirty, ignorant, untrustworthy and unevolved beings. As a Ramananadi sadhu his daily life was chanting of the name of ram and study of the ram story. In Haridwar at religious festivals he met some Ramnamis. Then after, he made more than 15 visits to Chhattisgarh and discovered around 80% villages were Ramnamis.

Chhattisgarh is the home of two- third scheduled casts and a large majority of them are tribal, formerly of Madhya Pradesh. Shudras dominate the ranks of caste; Hindus in the state and in many villages harijans are actually dominating the caste. In rural Chhattisgarh, the voice of the untouchables is much louder than the other parts of the India. In villages harijans have more opportunity for self expression and this gives an excellent opportunity to see them more “on their own terms.” When asked to identify themselves most of the residents, young and old refer to themselves first as rather than Indian or Hindu.

Ramnami samaj is fairly new by Indian standard, having existed for barely a hundred years. In that short time, however the samaj had a significant influence on the religious and social life of the region.

Life sketch of Parsuram and founding of Ramnami Samaj

Since the time of Ghasidas, many Chhatisgarhi became aware of their social and religious position assigned them by the Hindu Orthodox. During this time the founder of ramnami samaj Parsuram was born. He was a poor villager chamar. People have different opinion about this man. Same say that he was a great saint some say he was a simple man but his life was devoted to Ram. As one Ramnami put it,”Parsuram was a poor Chhatisgarhi villager, similar in many ways to us; therefore we have the capabilities and opportunities to become as great as Ramnam devotee as he was.”

Seeing his unusual behavior his parent married him in his early age. He was twelve and his wife ten when they were married. He was good at study and business. In his mid thirties, he contracted a disease called leprosy. Thinking about the safety of his family he thought of leaving his family. Before leaving his home he sat outside of his home by the side of the river. A sadhu came to him without considering his disease. Seeing this Parsuram was deeply moved by the holy man. The sadhu told his name as Ramdev. In the afternoom Ramdev visited Prasuram’s family and told the family that Ram is Happy with Parsuram. He told Parsuram that tomorrow as he will get up from the sleep he will see that a Ramnam will appear on his chest or in his heart. Next morning Parsuram found the things as the sadhu had told him about, he also found out that the disease he had was no more now. The sadhu asked Parsuram, Manas was his istdev and that will fulfill all his need. In the beginning he felt shy to share his experience but after few days when he came to his normal life started sharing his experience with the people. He spoke about his experience and transformation. He chanted the name of ram, people who came to listen to him tattooed on their head to follow his teacher.

For many villagers Parsuram was a guru. Under his guidance they began to memorize verses from the Manas. He proclaimed the power of nam to all those he met and told them that it was the beast means of liberation. All kinds of people were welcomed in his home. The news spread throughout much of eastern Chhattisgarh. When high caste Hindus heard about it, they got angry thinking that a low caste man, a chamar is preaching the name of Ram. They tried to stop him from doing so but Parsuram did not listen to them. Many Ramnamis were attacked. Ramnamis went to British court to get protection. Case went to court in 1910. Finally, on October 12, 1912, they won the case. They got freedom to practice their religion and they got police protection for their movement. This was a big victory for them in order to mark this day they gathered together in one place and chanted the name of ram. Similarly every year they organize bhajan mela, where they come together and celebrate.

Bhakti Philosophy

                                                     

The two central practices of Ramnami devotion are chanting Ramnam ("the name of Ram") and reciting Ramkatha ("the story of Ram"). These practices are shared by the larger Ram traditions in India. Parsuram, the founder of the ramnami Samaj simply started the path of devotion for Ram. The primary goal of early Ramnami samaj was bonding together of low caste and uneducated people. Anybody who wanted to join in this samaj was welcomed without considering their caste. According to Parsuram the salvation can be attained only by chanting Ramnam. Keeping this in their mind the members of the sect use to chant Ramnam as much as possible. Especially they used to use their free time in chanting the Name of Ram, e.g., if they waited for the bus they use to chant the name of Ram.

Some lows were prescribed like other religions, they are as follows:

1.      Sect members are to eat only in the home of an initiated Ramnami, though they may invite anyone to their own home.

2.      All children born to a Ramnami family should be tattooed at least once by the age of two.

3.      Anyone seeking to be married by the sect must also have at least one Ramnam tattoo and must agree to chant Ramnam daily.

Besides above mentioned three lows, they have some other rules also which the sect members have to follow, they are as follows:

1.      Practicing Ramnam daily

2.      Treating all sect members with equality and respect.

3.      Abstaining from alcohol

4.      Practicing vegetarian

5.      Tattooing of Ramnam at least once on the body

6.      Wearing the Ramnam ordhni during chanting if one is owned.

Among all these rules first three rules are considered of supreme importance, next two are of great importance and last one is encouraged but not compulsory.

Significance of Tattoo,Ordhni,Mukut and Ghungru

Tattoo or Ankit

Parsuram the founder of Ramnami samaj, was the first one to be tattooed, But in India the concept and practice of wearing the name of God or other important religious and cultural symbols on the body date back to ancient times.

The Sanskrit term for the sacred marks used by many Hindus sect to identify themselves is “Tilaks”. Some religious sects in south India also refer to their marks as “nama”. For the ramnamis, Ramnam tattoos have had varied significance throughout the sect’s brief history, but they have always remained a vital part of the sect’s tradition. For Parsuram, his tattoo was the result of his devotion and also Prasad, a gift and an acknowledgement from Ram. For the First Ramnamis, their tattoos expressed their religious connection with Parsuram, signified their commitment to ramnam, and furnished them with a common bond, which set them apart from others and linked them together in a permanent and visible way.

Ordhni

A ramnami ordhni is the sect’s ritual shawl, its major part of ramnami wardrobe. The shawls are generally made from piece of white cloths and are covered with ramnam, written in devnagri script. All ramnamis are encouraged to possess an ordhni and wear it whenever they chant. The shawl is meant to symbolize the ramnamis’ devotion to Ram and their membership in the samaj. More importantly it is used to wrap them in the name, as well as in a sheath of purity and protection provided through the power of name.

Mukut

The ramnamis wear a peacock feather hat known as mukut. It gives the members of the samaj a unique physical appearance. In Hindu devotional literature peacock feather is often associated with Vishnu or one of his avatars, usually Krishna but also Ram. To symbolize their devotion to Ram Parsuram used to wear a peacock feather in his turban when he worked in the fields, and the members of his village soon began to call him pankhawala.

Ghunghuru

The ramnamis used no musical instruments as such to accompany their chanting of Ram. Throughout much of the history of the sect, however, members used a set of handmade bells, called “ghunguru”, for maintaining a beat during the bhajan. They did not use other cymbals saying that they wish to hear is only the sound of ramnam.

Bhajan Mela

The bhajan mela is an important event not just for ramnamis but also for the people of eastern Chhatisgarh. Its increasing popularity has caused it to become a focus of energy and activity, and it is anticipated by many from all over the regions. As none of the other religious sects in the rural Chhattisgarh, has as large gathering. The mela enhances the Ramnamis’ popularity and credibility in the eyes of many villagers. Mela shows as a sign of stability and continuity, and thus it enhances the status of the sect. The mela also gives ramnamis an opportunity to reaffirm their commitment to the movement and its goals, to come into contact with people from all over the region and to celebrate. For many it is also a time to forget a few days the problems and worries that so often plague daily existence. At the mela it is easy to become involved in the ritual, emotional, and religious activities and fervor, thus allowing the daily difficulties to fade from thought and concern.

Relevance: Then and Now

When we study carefully about the ramnami movement we find that Parsuram, who was the founder of Ramnami movement wanted to make a way of devotion to Ram for the untouchables. The life of untouchables or a low caste person of central India was very pitiful at that time. They were not allowed to enter in the temple of upper cast orthodox Hindu. They were considered dirty, untrustworthy and unevolved human beings. These people even could not express their devotion as they wanted. Thus we see that at this time Parsuram the founder of Ramnami movement comes into scene.

Ramnami movement gave a base for those untouchable low caste people who because of fear remained speechless. They became aware about their rights and opportunities. In a way this movement gave an open platform to practice their religion. Parsuram who was their own man and who had received a special grace from God encouraged his followers to be the part of this movement. This movement was not so difficult also; Parsuram the founder of this movement used to tell his followers that one can attain salvation by chanting the name of the Lord Ram. This was something new for them thus they started to show great devotion to Ram. Ramnam could be chanted anywhere but sometimes they came together and chanted the name of Ram. This kind of arrangement brought them under one umbrella. We can observe that there was uniformity in their movement. Tattoo, mukut, ankle bells and ramnam shawl they shared in common gathering, created the feeling of oneness and united in one community. In the time of difficulties they used to help one another. Bhajan mela they organized every year again this occasion strengthened their unity and strength.

Today when we see Ramnami samaj then we find that it is slowly fading away. Today low caste people are also getting good education. Thus, they don’t want to spoil their beautiful bodies by getting Ramnam tattoo. Even their parents don’t encourage their children to get tattoos. They rarely use the ramnam shawl and chanting ramnam is limited to only some special occasions, feasts and special rituals. This shows that a lot of changes have taken place in ramnami samaj with the change of time. Their thinking pattern has changed with the proper education. But when we talk about caste system, we observe only a little change. As we know that Gandhiji also tried his best to eliminate the caste system by saying that the harijans are the sons of God but sad thing is that it still exists in India even today. There are some changes in thinking about the low caste people, high caste Hindus at least many of them don’t consider harijans as dirty, untrustworthy and unevolved human beings. Dr. Ambedkar who was also an untouchable once said that, “he don’t want to die as Hindu.” Keeping this in his mind he converted into Buddhism, along with him so many harijans also converted into Buddhism.

Thus we see that the practice of caste system has been decreased with the time but still in some places we hear that harijans are not allowed to enter in the Hindu temples. Today it is difficult to find ramnamis in their original custom. Reason may be whether they are forgetting or they don’t want to follow the old custom. Thus we conclude that with the change of time ramnami samaj is also changing its existence.

                         

Conclusion

Ramnami samaj which was founded by a low caste chamar named Parsuram was much effective in the central India, specially in Chhattisgarh. Ramnami samaj’s bhakti was based on the Lord Ram. Members were fully devoted to their Lord Ram. This religion was much popular in the central India only. People of other part of India were not aware about this movement. Thus we can give some credit to the author of the book “Rapt in the name,” Ramdas Lamb whose research and study threw light about this movement. Ramnamis were simple, humble and mostly illiterate people who belonged to the low caste community. These people were not aware about their social and religious status. Parsuram who was believed to be enlightened one, brought awareness among these people.

One good thing we can observe about this movement is that it brought unity among the low cast people, specially among the harrjans. In this religion people of all caste and creed were welcomed without discrimination. People came together under the same roof and chanted the name of Ram. Followers of this movement shared the same belief with their teacher about the liberation; the chanting of Ramnam can lead to liberation. Thus ramnamis wanted to hear and utter only the name of Ram. Tattoo, ramnami shawl, mukut and Ghungru they shared in common were to show their devotion to their Lord Ram and to their unity. Some high caste Hindus misunderstood this movement and the result they attacked the ramnamis. But at last ramnamis won the case and this victory strengthened their movement.

Today when we talk about the ramnami samaj we find that there are lot of changes has taken place. With the change of time they have also changed their life style and their custom. Today we cannot identify with their physical appearance like earlier used to. This kind of changes can be observed in other religions to. Thus I conclude by saying that things changes with the time, and the changes are the sign of progress but the problem arises when we lose our identity.